If animal contact voltage reaches sufficient levels, animals coming into contact with grounded devices may receive a mild electric shock that can cause a behavioral response. At voltage levels that are just perceptible to the animal, behaviors indicative of perception (eg, flinches) may result with little change in normal routines. At higher exposure levels, avoidance behaviors may result. The direct effect of animal contact with electrical current can range from: • Mild behavioral reactions indicative of sensation, to • Involuntary muscle contraction, or twitching, to • Intense behavioral responses indicative of pain. The indirect effects of these behaviors can vary considerably depending on the specifics of the contact location, level of current flow, body pathway, frequency of occurrence, and many other factors related to the daily activities of animals. There are several common situations of concern in animal environments: • Animals avoiding certain exposure locations, which may result in: X Reduced water intake if exposure is required for animals to access watering devices, X Reduced feed intake if exposure is required for animals to accesses feeding devices or locations. • Difficulty of moving or handling animals in areas of voltage/current exposure• The physiologic implications of the release of stress hormones produced by contact with painful stimuli. The severity of response will depend on the amount of electrical current (measured in milliamps) flowing through the animal’s body, the pathway it takes through the body, and the sensitivity of the individual animal. The results of the combined current dose-response experiments, voltage exposure response experiments, and measurements of body and contact resistances is consistent with the lowest (worst case) cow + contact resistance as low as 500 as estimated by Lefcourt that may occur in some unusual situations on farms (firm application of the muzzle to a wet metallic watering device and hoof contact on a clean, wet, contoured metallic plate on the floor). These studies on responses of dairy cows to electrical exposure agree well with each other and with predictions from neuroelectric theory and practice. There is a high degree of repeatability across studies in which exposures and responses have been appropriately quantified. For confirmation, a potential of 2 to 4 V (60 Hz, rms) must be measured between 2 points that an animal might contact (or animal contact measurement), and some animals should exhibit signs of avoidance behavior. The animal contact voltage measurement with an appropriate shunt resistor value provides the only reliable indication of exposure levels. Voltage readings at cow contact points should be made with a 500- or 1000- resistor across the 2 measuring leads to the cow contact points in addition to open circuit measurements. The only studies that have documented adverse effects of voltage and current on cows had both sufficient current applied to cause aversion and forced exposures (ie, animals could not eat or drink without being exposed to voltage and current) and all of the indirect responses (reduced water or intake and milk production) were behaviorally mediated. It is typical for voltage levels to vary considerably at different locations on a farm. Decreased water and/or feed intake or undesired behaviors result only if current levels are sufficient to produce aversion at locations that are critical to daily animal activity, such as feeders, waterers, and milking areas. If an aversive current occurs only a few times per day, it is not likely to have an adverse effect on cow behavior. The more often an aversive voltage occurs in areas critical to cows’ normal feeding, drinking, or resting, the more likely it is to affect cows. A number of studies have been done to investigate potential detrimental physiologic responses that may result from animals’ exposure to voltage and current. The literature review presented here summarizes 46 research trials on groups of cows exposed to know levels of voltage and/or current. Many of these were part of the same experiment but exposed cows at different levels of voltage or current. None of these trials or experiments (some using aggressive exposure of cows to mastitis organisms) showed a significant effect of voltage/current exposure on SCC or the incidence of mastitis. Many of these studies showed behavioral modification and some showed minor changes in milk yield, milk composition, or stress hormones (especially cortisol). These studies have shown that increased concentrations of the stress hormone cortisol do not occur at levels below behavioral response levels and only become apparent in some, but not all, cows at substantially higher voltage/current exposures than the threshold required for behavioral modification. This body of research indicates that while exposure to stray voltage at levels of 2 V to 4 V may be a mild stressor to dairy cows, it does not contribute to increased SCC or incidence of mastitis or reduced milk yield.