Contents iiiIntroduction viiiIntroduction to the Thesis (1958): Chapters on Phonology xviIntroduction to the Dissertation (1966): From Morphophonemics to Syntax xxMaps xxiiiCHAPTER I - THE BATAK PHONEMES 1 1. Consonants 1 1.1. The Stops 2 1.2. The Fricatives 3 1.3. The Affricates 5 1.4. The Nasals 6 1.5. The Linguals 7 1.6. The Semivowels 8 1.7. The Glottal Stop 9 1.8. Concluding Remarks 11 2. Vowels 13 2.1. The Suprasegmental Phonemes 21 3. Stress 21 4. Juncture 29 5. Pitch 33CHAPTER II - PHONOTACTICS 41 2.1. Word Patterns 41 2.2. Consonant Clusters 43 2.3. Vowel Clusters 50CHAPTER III - MORPHOPHONEMICS 57 3.1. Words 57 3.2. External Sandhi 58 3.2.1. Examples of External Sandhi 59 3.3. Internal Morphophonemics 60 3.3.1. Regular Internal Alternations 60 3.3.2. Irregular Internal Alternations 61 3.3.3. Stress Alternation 63 3.3.4. Examples 63 3.4. Conclusion 64CHAPTER IV - MORPHOLOGY 65 4.0. Introduction 65 4.1. Parts of Speech 65 4.2. Inflectional Categories 66 4.2.1. Substantive Class 66 4.2.2. Substantive Reference 66 4.2.2.1. Allocation 67 4.2.2.2. Actor 67 4.2.2.3. Object 68 4.2.3. Voice and Resolution 68 4.2.3.1. Voice 68 4.2.4. Mode and Aspect 68 4.2.4.1. Mode: Active Transitive 68 4.2.4.2. Passive Transitive 69 4.2.4.3. Aspect 70 4.2.5. Degree 71 4.2.6. Ordinal 72 4.3. Contentives 72 4.3.1. Nouns 72 4.3.2. Verbs 73 4.3.3. Adjectives 75 4.3.4. Adjuncts 75 4.3.5. Interjections 76 4.4. Functors 76 4.4.1. Substitutes 76 4.4.1.1. Pronouns 77 4.4.1.2. Proverbs 79 4.4.1.3. Pro-adjective 79 4.4.1.4. Pro-adjuncts 79 4.4.1.5. Pro-clauses 80 4.4.2. Directive Particles 80 4.4.2.1. Prepositions 80 4.4.2.1.1. Locative Prepositions 80 4.4.2.1.2. Instrumental Prepositions 81 4.4.2.1.3. Attributive Preposition 81 4.4.2.1.4. Possessive-Agentive Preposition 81 4.4.2.1.5. Objective Preposition 81 4.4.2.1.6. Comparative Prepositions 82 4.4.2.1.7. Resultative Prepositions 82 4.4.2.1.8. Some Phrases Function as Prepositions 82 4.4.2.2. Subordinating Conjunctions 82 4.4.3. Modal Particles 84 4.4.3.1. Predicative Particles 84 4.4.3.2. Imperative Particles 85 4.4.4. Connectives 86 4.4.5. Auxiliaries 86 4.4.5.1. Predicator Auxiliaries 86 4.4.5.2. Noun Auxiliaries 87 4.4.5.3. Adjective Auxiliaries 88 4.4.5.4. Adjunct Auxiliary 88 4.4.5.5. Substitute Auxiliary 89 4.4.5.5.1. Numeral Auxiliaries 89 4.5. Structure of Words 90 4.5.1. Composition 90 4.6. Structure of Stems 91 4.6.1. Secondary Derivation 91 4.6.2. Primary Derivation 91 4.6.2.1. Root Compounds 92 4.6.3. Noun Stems 93 4.6.3.1. Simple Noun Stems 93 4.6.3.2. Primary Derived Noun Stems 93 4.6.3.3. Secondary Derived Noun Stems 95 4.6.4. Verb Stems 97 4.6.4.1. Intransitive Verb Stems 97 4.6.4.1.1. Simple Intransitive Verbs 97 4.6.4.1.2. Primary Derived Intransitive Verbs 97 4.6.4.1.3. Secondary Intransitive Verbs 98 4.6.4.2. Transitive Verbs 101 4.6.4.2.1. Simple Transitive Verbs 102 4.6.4.2.2. Primary Transitive Verbs 102 4.6.4.2.3. Secondary Transitive Verbs 102 4.6.5. Stems of other Word Classes 104 4.7. Roots 104CHAPTER V - SYNTAX 107 5.0. Introduction 107 5.1. Constructions 107 5.1.1. Endocentric Constructions 107 5.1.1.1. Attributive Constructions 107 5.1.1.1.1. Noun Phrase 108 5.1.1.1.2. Verb Phrases 109 5.1.1.1.3. Adjective Phrases 110 5.1.1.1.4. Adjunct Phrases 110 5.1.1.1.5. Substitute Phrases 111 5.1.1.2. Co-ordinate Constructions 111 5.1.1.2.1. Additive Constructions 111 5.1.1.2.2. Alternative Constructions 111 5.1.1.2.3. Appositive Constructions 112 5.1.2. Exocentric Constructions 112 5.1.2.1. Directive Constructions 112 5.1.2.1.1. Marked Directive Constructions 112 5.1.2.1.2. Verbal Directive Constructions 112 5.1.2.2. Predicative Constructions 113 5.1.2.2.1. Verbal Predicative Constructions 113 5.1.2.2.2. Equational Constructions 114 5.2. Clauses 114 5.2.1. Word Order 115 5.2.1.1. Direct Order 115 5.2.1.2. Inverted Order 116 5.2.2. Clause Types 117 5.2.2.1. Favourite Types 117 5.2.2.2. Minor Types 118 5.3. Sentences 119Appendix I - SYNTACTIC ANALYSIS OF A TEXT 121 1. Introduction 121 2. Text 121 3. Free Translation 122 4. Analysis 123Appendix II - SPECTROGRAPHIC ANALYSIS OF SOME BATAK PHONEMES 133 1. Vowel Length 133 2. Vowel Formants 135 3. Junctures 136 4. Pitch Contours 137 5. Phonotactics 138Appendix III - THE BATAK ALPHABET 141Bibliography 145

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