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ZENODO
Preprint . 2026
Data sources: ZENODO
ZENODO
Preprint . 2026
Data sources: Datacite
ZENODO
Preprint . 2026
Data sources: Datacite
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Common-Cause Failures in Physical AI: Estimating β-Coefficients for Redundant Safety Architectures

Authors: Melchior, Mati;

Common-Cause Failures in Physical AI: Estimating β-Coefficients for Redundant Safety Architectures

Abstract

Physical AI systems commonly claim 'redundant' or 'dual-channel' safety architectures. Per IEC 61508-6 Annex D, the efficacy of redundancy depends on the β-coefficient: the fraction of channel failures that are common-cause. A redundancy claim without β disclosure is therefore unverifiable. This paper presents a methodology for estimating β from publicly available architecture information, applied to five anonymized Physical AI architectures and a wider survey of approximately 30 cases. Most claimed-redundant architectures show estimated β > 5%, with software-only configurations approaching 100% for operating-system-level common-cause failures. We provide a 12-question evaluator's checklist for safety engineers, due-diligence reviewers, regulators, and standards bodies. Supplementary material includes a β-estimation worksheet (xlsx) operationalising the five-step methodology.

Keywords

Physical AI Safety, IEC 61508, redundancy, β-coefficient, dual-channel architecture, common-cause failure, fault-tolerance

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selected citations
These citations are derived from selected sources.
This is an alternative to the "Influence" indicator, which also reflects the overall/total impact of an article in the research community at large, based on the underlying citation network (diachronically).
BIP!Citations provided by BIP!
popularity
This indicator reflects the "current" impact/attention (the "hype") of an article in the research community at large, based on the underlying citation network.
BIP!Popularity provided by BIP!
influence
This indicator reflects the overall/total impact of an article in the research community at large, based on the underlying citation network (diachronically).
BIP!Influence provided by BIP!
impulse
This indicator reflects the initial momentum of an article directly after its publication, based on the underlying citation network.
BIP!Impulse provided by BIP!
0
Average
Average
Average
Green