{"references": ["Ali, F., D. K. Zelenitsky, F. Therrien, and D. B. Weishampel. 2008. Homology of the ''ethmoid complex'' of tyrannosaurids and its implications for the reconstruction of the olfactory apparatus of non-avian theropods. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 28:123-133.", "Bakker, R. T. 1992. Inside the head of a tiny T. rex. Discover, 13:58-69.", "Bakker, R. T., M. Williams, and P. J. Currie. 1988. Nanotyrannus, a new genus of pygmy tyrannosaur, from the latest Cretaceous of Montana. Hunteria, 1:1-30.", "Brochu, C. A. 2000. A digitally rendered endocast for Tyrannosaurus rex. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 20:1-6.", "Brochu, C. A. 2003. Osteology of Tyrannosaurus rex: insights from a nearly complete skeleton and high-resolution computed tomographic analysis of the skull. Society of Vertebrate Paleontology Memoir, 7:1-140.", "Brusatte, S. L., T. D. Carr, G. M. Erickson, G. S. Bever, and M. A. Norell. 2009. A long-snouted, multihorned tyrannosaurid from the Late Cretaceous of Mongolia. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences, 106:17261-17266.", "Carpenter, K. 1992. Tyrannosaurids (Dinosauria) of Asia and North America, p. 250-268. In N. J. Mateer and C. Pei-Ji (eds.), Aspects of Nonmarine Cretaceous Geology. China Ocean Press, Beijing.", "Carr, T. D. 1999. Craniofacial ontogeny in tyrannosaurid dinosaurs (Dinosauria, Coelurosauria). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 19:497-520.", "Carr, T. D., and T. E. Williamson. 2004. Diversity of late Maastrichtian Tyrannosauridae (Dinosauria, Theropoda) from western North America. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 142:479-523.", "Carr, T. D., and T. E. Williamson. 2010. Bistahieversor sealeyi, gen. et sp. nov., a new tyrannosauroid from New Mexico and the origin of deep snouts in Tyrannosauroidea. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 30:1-16.", "Carr, T. D., T. E. Williamson, and D. R. Schwimmer. 2005. A new genus and species of tyrannosauroid from the Late Cretaceous (Middle Campanian) Demopolis Formation of Alabama. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 25:119-143.", "Chure, D. J., and J. H. Madsen. 1996. Variation in aspects of the tympanic pneumatic system in a population of Allosaurus fragilis from the Morrison Formation (Upper Jurassic). Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 16:63-66.", "Currie, P. J. 2003a. Allometric growth in tyrannosaurids (Dinosauria: Theropoda) from the Upper Cretaceous of North America and Asia. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 40:661-665.", "Currie, P. J. 2003b. Cranial anatomy of tyrannosaurid dinosaurs from the Late Cretaceous of Alberta, Canada. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica, 48:191-226.", "Currie, P. J., J. H. Hurum, and K. Sabath. 2003. Skull structure and evolution in tyrannosaurid dinosaurs. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica, 48:227-234.", "Erickson, G. M., P. J. Makovicky, P. J. Currie, M. A. Norell, S. A. Yerby, and C. A. Brochu. 2004. Gigantism and comparative life-history parameters of tyrannosaurid dinosaurs. Nature, 430:772-775.", "Gilmore, C. W. 1946. A new carnivorous dinosaur from the Lance formation of Montana. Smithsonian Miscellaneous Collections, 106:1-19.", "Henderson, M. D., and W. H. Harrison. 2008. Taphonomy and environment of deposition of a juvenile tyrannosaurid skeleton from the Hell Creek Formation (latest Maastrichtian) of southeastern Montana, p. 82-90. In P. L. Larson and K. Carpenter (eds.), Tyrannosaurus rex, the Tyrant King. Indiana University Press, Bloomington.", "Holliday, C. M., and L. M. Witmer. 2008. Cranial kinesis in dinosaurs: intracranial joints, protractor muscles, and their significance for cranial evolution and function in diapsids. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 28:1073-1088.", "Holtz, T. R. 2001. The phylogeny and taxonomy of the Tyrannosauridae, p. 64-83. In D. H. Tanke and K. Carpenter (eds.), Mesozoic Vertebrate Life. Indiana University Press, Bloomington.", "Holtz, T. R. 2004. Tyrannosauroidea, p. 111-136. In D. B. Weishampel, P. Dodson, and H. Osmolska (eds.), The Dinosauria. University of California Press, Berkeley.", "Horner, J. R., and D. Lessem. 1993. The complete T. rex. Simon and Schuster, New York. 239 p.", "Horner, J. R., and M. B. Goodwin. 2006. Major cranial changes during Triceratops ontogeny. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 273:2757-2761.", "Horner, J. R., and M. B. Goodwin. 2009. Extreme cranial ontogeny in the Upper Cretaceous dinosaur Pachycephalosaurus. PLoS ONE, 4(10), e7626. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0007626.", "Hurum, J. H., and K. Sabath. 2003. Giant theropod dinosaurs from Asia and North America: skulls of Tarbosaurus bataar and Tyrannosaurus rex compared. Acta Palaeontologica Polonica, 48:161-190.", "Larson, N. L. 2008. One hundred years of Tyrannosaurus rex: the skeletons, p. 1-61. In P. L. Larson and K. Carpenter (eds.), Tyrannosaurus rex, the Tyrant King. Indiana University Press, Bloomington.", "Larson, P. L. 2008. Variation and sexual dimorphism in Tyrannosaurus rex, p. 102-128. In P. L. Larson and K. Carpenter (eds.), Tyrannosaurus rex, the Tyrant King. Indiana University Press, Bloomington.", "Li, D., M. A. Norell, K.-Q. Gao, N. D. Smith, and P. J. Makovicky. 2010. A longirostrine tyrannosauroid from the Early Cretaceous of China. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 277:183-190.", "Osborn, H. F. 1912. Crania of Tyrannosaurus and Allosaurus. Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History, 1:1-30.", "Paul, G. P. 2008. The extreme lifestyles and habits of the gigantic tyrannosaurid superpredators of the Late Cretaceous of North America and Asia, p. 306-352. In P. L. Larson and K. Carpenter (eds.), Tyrannosaurus rex, the Tyrant King. Indiana University Press, Bloomington.", "Rozhdestvensky, A. K. 1965. Growth changes in Asian dinosaurs and some problems of their taxonomy [in Russian]. Paleontological Journal, 3:95-109.", "Ruben, J. 1995. The evolution of endothermy in mammals and birds: from physiology to fossils. Annual Review of Physiology, 57:69-95.", "Ruben, J. 1996. Evolution of endothermy in mammals, birds, and their ancestors, p. 347-376. In I. A. Johnston and A. F. Bennett (eds.), Animals and Temperature. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge.", "Ruben, J. A., W. J. Hillenius, N. R. Geist, A. Leitch, T. D. Jones, P. J. Currie, J. R. Horner, and G. Espe III. 1996. The metabolic status of some Late Cretaceous dinosaurs. Science, 273:1204-1207.", "Ruben, J. A., W. J. Hillenius, A. Leitch, N. R. Geist, and T. D. Jones. 1997. New insights into the metabolic physiology of dinosaurs, p. 505-518. In J. O. Farlow and M. K. Brett-Surman (eds.), The Complete Dinosaur. Purdue University Press, Ashland.", "Russell, D. A. 1970. Tyrannosaurs from the Late Cretaceous of western Canada. National Museums of Canada Publications in Paleontology, 1:1-34.", "Sampson, S. D. 1999. Sex and destiny: the role of mating signals in speciation and macroevolution. Historical Biology, 13:173-197.", "Sampson, S. D. 2001. Speculations on the socioecology of ceratopsid dinosaurs (Ornithischia: Neoceratopsia), p. 263- 276. In D. Tanke and K. Carpenter (eds.), Mesozoic Vertebrate Life. Indiana University Press, Bloomington.", "Sampson, S. D., and L. M. Witmer. 2007. Craniofacial anatomy of Majungasaurus crenatissimus (Theropoda: Abelisauridae) from the Late Cretaceous of Madagascar. Society of Vertebrate Paleontology Memoir, 8:32-102.", "Sampson, S. D., M. J. Ryan, and D. H. Tanke. 1997. Craniofacial ontogeny in centrosaurine dinosaurs (Ornithischia: Ceratopsidae): taxonomic and behavioral implications. Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 221:293-337.", "Sereno, P. C., J. A. Wilson, L. M. Witmer, J. A. Whitlock, A. Maga, O. Ide, and T. Rowe. 2007. Structural extremes in a Cretaceous dinosaur. PLoS ONE, 2(11), e1230. doi:10.1371/ journal.pone.0001230.", "Tsuihiji, T., M. Watabe, L. M. Witmer, T. Tsubamoto, and K. Tsogtbaatar. 2007. A juvenile skeleton of Tarbosaurus with a nearly complete skull and its implications for ontogenetic change in tyrannosaurids. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology, 27(Supplement to 3), 160A.", "Tsuihiji, T., M. Watabe, K. Tsogtbaatar, T. Tsubamoto, R. Barsbold, S. Suzuki, A. H. Lee, R. C. Ridgely, Y. Kawahara, and L. M. Witmer. In review. Cranial osteology of a juvenile specimen of Tarbosaurus bataar from the Nemegt Formation (Upper Cretaceous) of Bugin Tsav, Mongolia. Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology.", "Witmer, L. M. 1990. The craniofacial air sac system of Mesozoic birds (Aves). Zoological Journal of the Linnean Society, 100:327-378.", "Witmer, L. M. 1997a. The evolution of the antorbital cavity of archosaurs: a study in soft-tissue reconstruction in the fossil record with an analysis of the function of pneumaticity. Society of Vertebrate Paleontology Memoir, 3:1-73.", "Witmer, L. M. 1997b. Craniofacial air sinus systems, p. 151-159. In P. J. Currie and K. Padian (eds.), Encyclopedia of Dinosaurs. Academic Press, New York.", "Witmer, L. M., and R. C. Ridgely. 2008a. Structure of the brain cavity and inner ear of the centrosaurine ceratopsid Pachyrhinosaurus based on CT scanning and 3D visualization, p. 117- 144. In P. J. Currie, W. Langston, Jr., and D. H. Tanke (eds.), A New Horned Dinosaur from an Upper Cretaceous Bone Bed in Alberta. National Research Council of Canada Monograph Series, Ottawa.", "Witmer, L. M., and R. C. Ridgely. 2008b. The paranasal air sinuses of predatory and armored dinosaurs (Archosauria: Theropoda and Ankylosauria) and their contribution to cephalic architecture. Anatomical Record, 291:1362-1388.", "Witmer, L. M., and R. C. Ridgely. 2009. New insights into the brain, braincase, and ear region of tyrannosaurs, with implications for sensory organization and behavior. Anatomical Record, 292:1266-1296.", "Witmer, L. M., S. Chatterjee, J. W. Franzosa, and T. Rowe. 2003. Neuroanatomy of flying reptiles and implications for flight, posture, and behavior. Nature, 425:950-953.", "Witmer, L. M., R. C. Ridgely, D. L. Dufeau, and M. C. Semones. 2008. Using CT to peer into the past: 3D visualization of the brain and ear regions of birds, crocodiles, and nonavian dinosaurs, p. 67-87. In H. Endo and R. Frey (eds.), Anatomical Imaging: Towards a New Morphology. Springer-Verlag, Tokyo.", "Zelenitsky, D. K., F. Therrien, and Y. Kobayashi. 2009. Olfactory acuity in theropods: palaeobiological and evolutionary implications. Proceedings of the Royal Society B, 276:667-673."]}

Lawrence M. Witmer, Ryan C. Ridgely (2010): The Cleveland tyrannosaur skull (Nanotyrannus or Tyrannosaurus): new findings based on CT scanning, with special reference to the braincase. Kirtlandia 57: 61-81, DOI: http://doi.org/10.5281/zenodo.3898946