Nils Riecken Beginning with its census campaigns in the late nineteenth century, the Ottomans sought to identify all subjects of the Sultan, males, females, and children. In contrast, earlier imperial surveys mostly registered adult males for the purpose of military conscription and taxation. This shift had a global dimension, occurring in several empires after 1850. Around this time, modernizing states began to measure a new object of analysis and intervention: their population.[1] Individuals...