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https://doi.org/10.5772/intech...
Part of book or chapter of book . 2025 . Peer-reviewed
License: CC BY
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Extrapulmonary Sarcoidosis

Authors: Şaban Melih Şimşek;

Extrapulmonary Sarcoidosis

Abstract

Sarcoidosis is a systemic granulomatous disorder of unknown aetiology that most commonly affects the lungs and intrathoracic lymph nodes. However, extrapulmonary involvement occurs in up to 50% of cases and may represent the initial or even the only manifestation of disease. Cardiac, neurologic, ocular, cutaneous, hepatic, renal, and musculoskeletal involvement are among the most clinically significant extrapulmonary presentations and may substantially influence prognosis. Although the diagnosis of sarcoidosis typically involves a combination of clinical observations, imaging findings, and histopathological confirmation of noncaseating granulomas, it also excludes alternative causes. Nearly half of sarcoidosis cases show extrapulmonary involvement, which can complicate diagnosis and treatment, especially in the absence of pulmonary symptoms. Although corticosteroids are the primary treatment, long-term use poses risks. Healthcare providers may consider steroid-sparing immunosuppressive agents, local anti-inflammatory medications, and biologic therapies such as tumour necrosis factor-alpha inhibitors for refractory or severe cases. This chapter overviews extrapulmonary sarcoidosis, detailing its organ-specific clinical features, diagnostic approaches, and current treatment strategies. Recent advancements in imaging techniques, including computed tomography (CT) and positron emission tomography (PET), have significantly enhanced our ability to detect and characterise extrapulmonary manifestations. Emphasising early recognition and a multidisciplinary approach, the chapter aims to improve patient outcomes by ensuring timely and effective management for those affected by this complex condition.

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selected citations
These citations are derived from selected sources.
This is an alternative to the "Influence" indicator, which also reflects the overall/total impact of an article in the research community at large, based on the underlying citation network (diachronically).
BIP!Citations provided by BIP!
popularity
This indicator reflects the "current" impact/attention (the "hype") of an article in the research community at large, based on the underlying citation network.
BIP!Popularity provided by BIP!
influence
This indicator reflects the overall/total impact of an article in the research community at large, based on the underlying citation network (diachronically).
BIP!Influence provided by BIP!
impulse
This indicator reflects the initial momentum of an article directly after its publication, based on the underlying citation network.
BIP!Impulse provided by BIP!
0
Average
Average
Average
hybrid