Pollination of a number of Apocynaceae species was studied by fluorescence microscopy of alcohol specimens mainly from Africa and Indonesia, showing growth of pollen tubes or absence thereof, and by field observations in Ivory Coast. The receptive surface of the pistil is predictable from its morphology. The flowers are visited by many insects and nectar-stealing birds, that do not pollinate; pollination is carried out by insects with long mouth parts, such as butterflies, bees, bumble bees and perhaps some wasps. Insect species have been determined up to family or species.