The current fuel production and related industries are still heavily reliant on fossil fuels. BP's "Statistical Review of World Energy" published in 2014 states that the world has in reserves 892 billion tonnes of coal, 186 trillion cubic meters of natural gas, and 1688 billion barrels of crude oil. Although these represent huge reserves, taking into account today's level of extraction, would mean that coal would be exhausted in 113 years and natural gas and crude oil would be extracted by 2069 and 2067, respectively. In the meanwhile, the CO2 atmospheric concentration has increased from 270 ppm before the industrial revolution to 400 ppm today and its annual release is predicted to exceed 40GT/year by 2030. As the world population increases, breakthrough technologies tackling both fuel supply and carbon emission challenges are needed. The use of CO2 from, or captured in industrial processes, as a direct feedstock for chemical fuel production, are crucial for reducing green house gas emission and for sustainable fuel production with the existing resources. The aim of this project is to develop a breakthrough technology with integrated low cost bio-electrochemical processes to convert CO2 into liquid fuels for transportations, energy storage, heating and other applications. CO2 is firstly electrochemically reduced to formate with the electric energy from biomass and various wastes and other renewable sources by Bioelectrochemical systems (BES). The product then goes through a biotransformation SimCell reactor with microorganisms (Ralstonia) specialised in converting formate to medium chain alkanes using a Synthetic biology approach. The proposed technology will develop around the existing wastewater treatment facilities from for example, petroleum refineries and water industries, utilising the carbon source in wastewater, thus minimising the requirement to transport materials and use additional land. To tackle the grand challenges, a multidisciplinary team of five universities will work together to develop this groundbreaking technology. Our research targets two specific aspects on renewable low carbon fuel generation: 1) Use of biomass and wastewater as a source of energy and reducing power to synthesise chemicals from CO2. 2) Interface electrochemical and biological processes to achieve chemical energy-to-fuels transformation. To achieve the goal of this project, there are three major research challenges we need to tackle: 1. How to maximise the power output and energy from wastewater with Bioelectrochemical systems? 2. How to achieve CO2 conversion to medium chain alkanes through reduction to formate in Microbial electrolysis cells, and then SimCells? 3. Can we develop a viable, integrated, efficient and economic system combining bio-electrochemical and biological processes for sustainable liquid fuel production? To tackle these challenges, we need to maximise energy output from wastewater by using novel 3-D materials, to apply highly active electrochemical catalysts for CO2 reduction, to improve efficiency of SimCell reactor, and to integrate both processes and design a new system to convert CO2 to medium chain alkanes with high efficiency. In this study, rigorous LCA will be carried out to identify the optimum pathways for liquid biofuel production. We will also look at the policies on low carbon fuel production and explore the ways to influence low carbon fuel policies. Through the development of this innovative technology, we will bring positive impact on the UK's target for reducing CO2 emissions and increasing the use of renewable energy.

The project aims to develop innovative polymer electrolyte based electrolysers with lower life cycle costs (achieved by enhanced efficiency) utilising enhanced materials and components. This proposal is based on adopting alkaline anion-exchange membrane (AEM) and ionomer (AEI) technology to open up the opportunity for low cost electrolysers systems with: i) low cost polymer electrolytes, catalysts (sustainable i.e. non-Pt), and bipolar plate materials; ii) higher energy efficiency; iii) durable long life operation; and iv) flexibility to respond to dynamic load operation. We target electrolysers involving hydrogen production from water electrolysis and involving carbon dioxide reduction for low overpotential (high value) organic chemical synthesis. A major aim is to produce the next generation of AAEMs and AEIs that can be supplied to (current and future) project partners in bulk quantities (including AEIs in a solubilised form). Hydrogen is an excellent storage medium for renewable and sustainable energy systems. Hydrogen has several advantages as an energy carrier including highly efficient reversible conversion between hydrogen and electricity, good gravimetric energy density of compressed gas compared to most batteries and scalability of hydrogen technologies for grid scale applications. Water electrolysis is a safe option for production of pure hydrogen at point of use as it does not require substantial storage requirements. Currently, the cost of hydrogen produced by electrolysis is greater than that of other methods such as steam reforming. Two major reasons for this is the capital cost of the cells and the electrical energy consumption. Commercial hydrogen production by water electrolysis is based on one of two technologies: aqueous alkaline (potassium hydroxide) electrolytes and proton exchange membrane electrolytes. Alkaline cells use lower cost electrode materials than acid polymer systems but current densities (and efficiency) are typically lower. The capital cost of proton exchange membrane electrolysers is higher (largely dictated by the high material costs of membranes [perfluorinated polymers] and precious metal [Pt, Ir, Ru] based catalysts) but their production rates (per unit electrode area) are higher based on the higher current densities. We thus seek to transform the latter technology by combing the advantages of alkaline and polymer electrolytes using low cost materials with the aim of improving energy efficiencies. Realistically there is a minimum energy consumption that can be achieved by electrolysis (based on thermodynamic potentials and voltage losses in the cell) and thus we set our target at a voltage of 1.75 V at 1 A cm-2 (based on geometric electrode area). To maximise the potential impact of the materials being developed, carbon dioxide reducing electrolysers will also be studied (involving the field of carbon dioxide utilisation). The reduction of carbon dioxide into useful chemicals is of great potential value from a sustainability, environmental and societal context. Such syntheses require a significant energy use and thus using renewable electrical energy in such applications could play a major part in their development. Consequently we seek to develop electrochemical technology whereby we synthesis small molecules (formate, synthesis gas, and/or methanol) based on anion exchange membrane electrolyser materials and architectures (including the involvement of carbonate anion conducting electrolytes - which inherently yield higher chemical stabilities compared to hydroxide conducting analogues). The project aims to deliver a step change in uptake of ultra-low carbon, green-hydrogen production and carbon dioxide reduction systems. This will be based upon the application of the applicants previous technology breakthroughs of alkaline polymer electrolyte materials and non-precious metal catalyst for galvanic and electrolytic electrochemical energy conversion and storage technologies.

Polymer electrolyte fuel cells (PEFCs), which produce electricity with near-zero pollution, have attracted significant attention as a sustainable power supply system. The development of fuel cell and hydrogen economy align with the scopes of Industrial Strategy: building a Britain fit for the future, Department for Business, Energy & Industrial Strategy, November 2017 and Road to Zero, Department for Transport, Office for Low Emission Vehicles, July 2018. This will help improve the air we breathe, support the shift to clean growth, and help the UK to seize new economic opportunities. Currently, fuel cells are used successfully in automobile, distributed/stationary and portable power generation applications. However, to improve its specific power and extend hydrogen FCs' wider applications e.g. unmanned flying vehicles (UAVs) and drones, super light-weight FCs technology will be required. Recent research has revealed the feasibility of using graphene aerogel (GA) as electrodes for electrochemical devices. Its high conductivity, high porosity and high surface area enable its applications of being gas diffusion layer (GDL), flow field plate (FFP), current collector and catalyst support; Super lightweight, flexibility and high compressibility could increase fuel cells mass and volume power densities and lead to alternative shapes. The primary aim of this research is to explore a range of GAs, and use the suitable ones to replace two components in conventional PEFC - GDL and FFP. Traditional FFP is usually made from carbon/polymer composites, graphite plates or stainless steel; GDL is usually made from high porous carbon paper. They are the two components which contribute the majority of the weight to FCs. In conventional FFP, the ribs partially cover the GDL and the resultant gas-transport distance becomes longer than the inter-channel distance. Water tends to saturate at the thinner portion, consequently, oxygen transport is compromised, leading to nonuniform power generation in the FCs. Using GA to replace these parts may deliver extremely lightweight fuel cells, therefore increased power densities can be achieved. GA has porous fine structure, reactant gases will follow diffusion-based mass transfer mechanism, that will lead to an uniform distribution of the reactants. The hydrophobic property and the pore arrangement of GA will enable the water produced in the cathode to leave the electrode, therefore better water management in fuel cells could be achieved. To accommodate graphene aerogel fuel cell (GAFC), a polymer based, simplified FC system will be designed and 3D printed at Northumbria University. The majority of the FC testing work will be carried out using this system. Selected samples will also be tested in the National Physical Laboratory using their state-of-the-art fuel cell test station, which contains a unique reference electrode array that can characterise carbon corrosion in the cathode. Owing to the high elasticity and flexible shape, to further improve the water management, two more types of chamber design will be introduced: tubular shape FC body and parallelogram electrode host. Tubular shape will introduce compression and expansion stress on anode and cathode respectively, therefore the cathode will have expanded pore structure which will further facilitate the air / oxygen mass transport and water to leave the electrodes; parallelogram shape will introduce shear strain on the electrodes, to facilitate water management. Numerical simulation for gas mass transfer, diffusion, heat and water distribution within GAFCs for different structure, shape of GAs and different cell design will be carried out to develop a better understanding of the experimental results. Further studies of GAFC could include temperature management and gas / air cleaning functions.

The project aims to develop a hydrogen generation system based on electrochemical water dissociation with zero electrical energy input. The project will revolutionise hydrogen production by creating hydrogen at a lower cost than commercial systems such as water electrolysis and reforming. It provides a sustainable route to hydrogen significantly reducing carbon emissions. This proposal is concerned with development of a robust hydrogen generator based on the conversion of waste, alcohols and biomass via direct and indirect electrolysis. The process uses either homogeneous or heterogeneous catalysts as charge carriers, which has several advantages. The catalytic redox reaction can occur in the solution and as a result, a noble metal anode is not needed. The electrolysis energy requirement is very low; 20% of that in conventional water electrolysis. This is related to the replacement of the oxygen evolution reaction at the anode with the indirect oxidation at a lower potential, which leads to a significant reduction in applied potential. The approach will test the feasibility of a novel electrolyser in which half the electrolyser generates electrical energy and thus supplements the low electrical potential required for the hydrogen generation; making it a zero energy electrical consuming electrolyser.

The current fuel production and related industries are still heavily reliant on fossil fuels. BP's "Statistical Review of World Energy" published in 2014 states that the world has in reserves 892 billion tonnes of coal, 186 trillion cubic meters of natural gas, and 1688 billion barrels of crude oil. Although these represent huge reserves, taking into account today's level of extraction, would mean that coal would be exhausted in 113 years and natural gas and crude oil would be extracted by 2069 and 2067, respectively. In the meanwhile, the CO2 atmospheric concentration has increased from 270 ppm before the industrial revolution to 400 ppm today and its annual release is predicted to exceed 40GT/year by 2030. As the world population increases, breakthrough technologies tackling both fuel supply and carbon emission challenges are needed. The use of CO2 from, or captured in industrial processes, as a direct feedstock for chemical fuel production, are crucial for reducing green house gas emission and for sustainable fuel production with the existing resources. The aim of this project is to develop a breakthrough technology with integrated low cost bio-electrochemical processes to convert CO2 into liquid fuels for transportations, energy storage, heating and other applications. CO2 is firstly electrochemically reduced to formate with the electric energy from biomass and various wastes and other renewable sources by Bioelectrochemical systems (BES). The product then goes through a biotransformation SimCell reactor with microorganisms (Ralstonia) specialised in converting formate to medium chain alkanes using a Synthetic biology approach. The proposed technology will develop around the existing wastewater treatment facilities from for example, petroleum refineries and water industries, utilising the carbon source in wastewater, thus minimising the requirement to transport materials and use additional land. To tackle the grand challenges, a multidisciplinary team of five universities will work together to develop this groundbreaking technology. Our research targets two specific aspects on renewable low carbon fuel generation: 1) Use of biomass and wastewater as a source of energy and reducing power to synthesise chemicals from CO2. 2) Interface electrochemical and biological processes to achieve chemical energy-to-fuels transformation. To achieve the goal of this project, there are three major research challenges we need to tackle: 1. How to maximise the power output and energy from wastewater with Bioelectrochemical systems? 2. How to achieve CO2 conversion to medium chain alkanes through reduction to formate in Microbial electrolysis cells, and then SimCells? 3. Can we develop a viable, integrated, efficient and economic system combining bio-electrochemical and biological processes for sustainable liquid fuel production? To tackle these challenges, we need to maximise energy output from wastewater by using novel 3-D materials, to apply highly active electrochemical catalysts for CO2 reduction, to improve efficiency of SimCell reactor, and to integrate both processes and design a new system to convert CO2 to medium chain alkanes with high efficiency. In this study, rigorous LCA will be carried out to identify the optimum pathways for liquid biofuel production. We will also look at the policies on low carbon fuel production and explore the ways to influence low carbon fuel policies. Through the development of this innovative technology, we will bring positive impact on the UK's target for reducing CO2 emissions and increasing the use of renewable energy.