This proposal is for a new EPSRC Centre for Doctoral Training in Wind and Marine Energy Systems and Structures (CDT-WAMSS) which joins together two successful EPSRC CDTs, their industrial partners and strong track records of training more than 130 researchers to date in offshore renewable energy (ORE). The new CDT will create a comprehensive, world-leading centre covering all aspects of wind and marine renewable energy, both above and below the water. It will produce highly skilled industry-ready engineers with multidisciplinary expertise, deep specialist knowledge and a broad understanding of pertinent whole-energy systems. Our graduates will be future leaders in industry and academia world-wide, driving development of the ORE sector, helping to deliver the Government's carbon reduction targets for 2050 and ensuring that the UK remains at the forefront of this vitally important sector. In order to prepare students for the sector in which they will work, CDT-WAMSS will look to the future and focus on areas that will be relevant from 2023 onwards, which are not necessarily the issues of the past and present. For this reason, the scope of CDT-WAMSS will, in addition to in-stilling a solid understanding of wind and marine energy technologies and engineering, have a particular emphasis on: safety and safe systems, emerging advanced power and control technologies, floating substructures, novel foundation and anchoring systems, materials and structural integrity, remote monitoring and inspection including autonomous intervention, all within a cost competitive and environmentally sensitive context. The proposed new EPSRC CDT in Wind and Marine Energy Systems and Structures will provide an unrivalled Offshore Renewable Energy training environment supporting 70 students over five cohorts on a four-year doctorate, with a critical mass of over 100 academic supervisors of internationally recognised research excellence in ORE. The distinct and flexible cohort approach to training, with professional engineering peer-to-peer learning both within and across cohorts, will provide students with opportunities to benefit from such support throughout their doctorate, not just in the first year. An exceptionally strong industrial participation through funding a large number of studentships and provision of advice and contributions to the training programme will ensure that the training and research is relevant and will have a direct impact on the delivery of the UK's carbon reduction targets, allowing the country to retain its world-leading position in this enormously exciting and important sector.

This project aims to understand how novel energy storage technologies might best be integrated into an evolving, lower-carbon UK energy system in the future. It will identify technical, environmental, public acceptability, economic and policy issues, and will propose solutions to overcome barriers to deployment. As electricity is increasingly generated by highly-variable renewables and relatively inflexible nuclear power stations, alternatives to the use of highly-flexible fossil-fuelled generation as a means of balancing the electricity system will become increasingly valuable. Numerous technologies for storing electricity are under development to meet this demand, and as the cost of storage is reduced through innovation, it is possible that they could have an important role in a low-carbon energy system. The Energy Storage Supergen Hub is producing a UK roadmap for energy storage that will be the starting point for this project. The value of grid-scale storage to the electricity system has been assessed for some scenarios. For extreme cases comprising only renewable and nuclear generation, the value is potentially substantial. However, the value of energy storage to the UK depends on the costs and benefits relative to sharing electricity imbalances through greater European interconnection, demand-side electricity response, and wider energy system storage, and the optimal approaches to integrating energy storage at different levels across the whole energy system are not well understood. This project will take a broader approach than existing projects by considering energy system scenarios in which storage options are more integrated across the whole energy system, using a series of soft-linked energy and electricity system models. Demand-side response and increased interconnection will be considered as counterfactual technologies that reduces the need for storage. Three broad hypotheses will be investigated in this project: (i) that a whole energy system approach to ES is necessary to fully understand how different technologies might contribute as innovation reduces costs and as the UK energy system evolves; (ii) that a range of technological, economic and social factors affect the value of ES, so should all be considered in energy system scenarios; and, (iii) that the economic value of the difference between good and bad policy decisions relating to the role of energy storage in the transition to low-carbon generation is in the order of £bns. A broader, multidisciplinary approach, which extends beyond the techno-economic methodologies that are adopted by most studies, will be used to fully assess the value of energy storage. This project will therefore also examine public acceptability issues for the first time, compare the environmental impacts of storage technologies using life-cycle analyses, and examine important economic issues surrounding market design to realise the value of storage services provided by consumers. All of these analyses will be underpinned by the development of technology-neutral metrics for ES technologies to inform the project modelling work and the wider scientific community. These multidisciplinary considerations will be combined in a series of integrated future scenarios for energy storage to identify no-regrets technologies. The project will conclude by examining the implications of these scenarios for UK Government policy, energy regulation and research priorities. The analyses will be technical only to the point of identifying the requirements for energy storage, with absolutely no bias towards or against any classes of storage technology.

The UK has made considerable progress decarbonising its power sector. However, decarbonising space-heating has been much more challenging. Currently, space-heating accounts for ~1/3 of the country's CO2 emissions. This must change to achieve Net Zero Two main low-carbon heating solutions are being considered: 1) direct heating from hydrogen combustion in boilers and 2) electrically-driven heat-pumping. Although both are promising, there are serious challenges to overcome. National Grid and other gas network operators have confirmed the technical feasibility of distributing hydrogen through the existing gas infrastructure, which connects >23 million properties. Hydrogen boilers are not commercially available yet, but they are well underway. Hydrogen can be made from renewable electricity; however, a big downside is that when combusted in boilers, the amount of energy we recover is only ~60% of what we spent making it. It is not a very efficient process. Electric heat pumps have a much higher efficiency. The amount of heat they provide can be as much as 3x the amount of electricity they consume. So, for every 1kWh of electricity used, a heat pump will give 3kWh of heat. This in stark contrast to the 0.6 kWh that would be obtained if the same 1kWh of electricity was used to make hydrogen, and that hydrogen was combusted in a boiler. Although it seems like using electric heat pumps is the way to go, there is a major problem. The electricity grid does not have the capacity to support their use in any significant fraction of UK homes. The reason for this is the huge energy demand for heating purposes. During winter, the peak demand in the gas network is more than 4x than the peak demand in the electricity grid. But also, during the first few hours of each day, the gas network experiences power-ramps that are 10x greater than what the electricity grid sees. The electricity grid does not have the capacity to provide the same levels of energy and power as the gas network. The upgrades required to enable the electricity grid to take on the gas network's duty are too expensive to be viable. It is precisely these challenges that are holding back the UK's transition to low-carbon heating. This postdoctoral fellowship addresses this issue by investigating and developing a deep understanding of a novel set of technologies called 'High-Performance Heat-Powered Heat-Pumps (HP3)'. These innovative heating systems combine the best attributes of the two main low-carbon options being considered (hydrogen boilers and electric heat pumps) and at the same time, removes their drawbacks. The widespread adoption of HP3 systems will enable the gas network to distribute hydrogen to homes across the country and therefore to continue to supply the enormous demand for energy during winter. HP3 systems deliver a greater benefit per unit of H2 consumed in comparison to hydrogen boilers. This will help the gas network to supply hydrogen to even more homes but also, consumers will enjoy reduced bills. By keeping the gas network in service, the use of HP3 systems will avoid placing an overwhelmingly large load on the electricity grid that would be created if the country adopted electrically-driven heat-pumping. This fellowship will develop detailed computational models to simulate the operation of HP3 systems in order to understand the effect that different design and operational variables have on their performance. Special focus will be given to exploring ultra-high operating pressures at this can lead to reductions in the overall cost of the units. A laboratory prototype will be developed and tested to demonstrate the functionality concept. This work has real prospects to be transformational in two different ways: (i) triggering a step-change in the UK 'boiler industry' towards more sophisticated and much higher-value products and (ii) accelerating the achievement of Net Zero by improving affordability.

By 2050 it's estimated >400 GW of energy will be gathered by offshore wind across the whole North Sea. For scale, Hinkley Point C nuclear reactor is projected to produce 3.2 GW. How will this increased anthropogenic use of our coastal seas impact already stressed marine ecosystems? And how will that same production of renewable energy offset risks of extreme climate change that, left unchecked, will increase the risk of biodiversity declines. There are many complex changes to ecosystems linked to Offshore Wind Farms (OWFs) that we need to understand now, so that the extent of increasing wind energy extraction further offshore is managed in the most sustainable way. An important effect of large wind energy extraction will be to reduce the amount of energy that would normally go into local ocean currents via surface stress, altering sea state and mixing. Conversely, there will be local increases in turbulence around turbine structures and seabed scouring near fixed foundations. Any change in ocean mixing may change the timing, distribution and diversity of phytoplankton primary production, the base of the food chain for marine ecosystems, to some degree. This has knock-on-effects on the diversity, health and locations of pelagic fish that are critical prey species of commercial fish, seabirds and marine mammals. Observed changes caused by operational OWFs in the southern North Sea include local surface temperature rise and the displacement of seabirds and fishing fleets from the OWF footprint, whereas seals often appear to be feeding near turbines. All of these changes have a linked component - important prey fish species - which are likely to aggregate near structures (as seen at other offshore platforms). Seabirds and fishing fleets subsequently have less space to hunt, with potentially increased competition for fish. However, if OWFs are also de facto marine protected areas and so positively affect local primary production, they may provide good habitat for fish population growth. So, what are the cumulative effects of current OWF developments and the thousands of additional planned structures? Do the physical, biogeochemical and ecosystem changes exacerbate or mitigate those resulting from climate change? As OWFs migrate further offshore as floating structures, how can current knowledge based on shallow, coastal fixed turbines be suitably extrapolated to understand the impacts on ecosystems dependent on seasonal cycles that are typical of deeper waters? PELAgIO will address all of these questions through an interdisciplinary, multi-scale observation and modelling framework that spans physical mixing through to plankton production, on to the response of fish and whole ecosystems. We will collect fine-scale data using the latest multi-instrumented acoustic platforms set beside and away from OWFs, complemented by autonomous surface and submarine robots to capture continuous and coincident data from physics to fish, over multiple scales and seasons to fully understand what is 'different' inside an OWF and how big its footprint is. These new data will test the effects on seabirds and marine mammals to build an OWF ecosystem parameterization that accounts for changes to mixing and wind deficit impacts, and is scalable to next-generation OWFs. This bottom-up, comprehensive approach will enable true calibration and validation of 3D ocean-biogeochemical-sediment modelling systems, from the scale of turbine foundations up to the regional and even cross-shelf scales. Identified changes will be integrated into Bayesian ecosystem models that enable the cumulative effects of ecological, social and economic trade-offs of different policy approaches for OWFs to be quantifiably assessed for present day conditions, during extreme events and under climate change.

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