The main goal of this project is to develop a fundamental understanding and applications of resistive switching in silicon-rich oxide. This may lead to a breakthrough in low-cost on-chip integration of Resistive Random Access Memory (RRAM) devices with Si microelectronics. To achieve that we will carry out detailed experimental studies of switching; develop a physical switching model; apply this model to design and fabricate demonstrator devices; characterise the devices, and develop circuit-level models for systems incorporating Si RRAM and hence extend the capabilities of Si microelectronics into new domains and applications. RRAM devices are components whose electrical resistance can be varied by applying an appropriate voltage. They are promising candidates for next generation electronic memories, offering a number of significant advantages over conventional Flash memory, including: very high packing density; fast switching; low energy switching; 3D integration to further increase memory capacity; ease of processing. Existing RRAM technologies are primarily based on metal oxide materials. However, Si- based devices have a number of advantages, including ease of integration with silicon CMOS processing technology, along with the possibility to tailor their electrical properties by varying programming voltage pulses. RRAM devices have potential applications beyond memory: if the device resistance can be continuously varied they may behave in a similar way to neurons, and may therefore be used in novel neural networks or other processing architectures. Also, as resistive switching shares many of the features of oxide failure in CMOS devices, the results from a study of RRAM will yield valuable information that may help reduce device failure, or even recovering damaged devices. We have recently developed a Si/SiO2 RRAM. Unlike competing technologies, it does not rely on the diffusion of metal ions, can be fabricated only from Si and SiO2, and operates in ambient conditions. Resistance contrast is up to 1,000,000, switching time <90ns, and switching energy 1pJ/bit or lower. Scanning Tunnelling Microscopy suggests individual switching elements as small as 10nm. Devices can be cycled thousands of times and can be operated in either unipolar or bipolar modes, with different characteristics in each: in the former, binary switching between discrete levels can be achieved, while in the latter we are able to continuously vary the device resistance, opening up the possibility of analogue devices such as memristors. Our devices are an alternative to existing metal oxide-based devices. The Si/SiO2 system is the building block of Si CMOS technology - our devices require no other material. We have found that the externally-set current compliance required for reliable resistive switching in metal oxide systems is not necessary in SiOx devices - asymmetric doping of the structure produces intrinsic self-limiting. In addition, the high degree of nonlinearity inherent in our semiconductor-based RRAM devices mitigates the problem of parasitic leakage currents in arrays of RRAM devices. Our project will go further than experimental studies of Si/SiO2 RRAM devices. We will also develop comprehensive theoretical models for the resistance switching process, and circuit-level models to investigate the application of our RRAM devices in real systems. Our approach is novel and unique in that it goes all the way from the atomistic modelling and electrical characterization of materials and fundamental electronic and ionic processes involved in resistive switching, through the simulation and fabrication of experimental devices to their optimisation and potential implementation in technology. This can only be achieved via synergy of expertise available at UCL and Glasgow.

In the 20th century, the development of silicon-based electronics revolutionised the world, becoming the most pervasive technology behind modern-day life. In the 21st century, it is envisaged that technology will move to the use of light (photons) together with, or in place of, electrons, providing a dramatic increase in the speed and quantity of information processing whilst also reducing the energy required to do so. Making this transition to an all optical 'photonic' technology has proved to be a complex task, as the material of choice for electronics, silicon, is limited in its ability to control light. In the search for alternative materials, a class of glasses called amorphous chalcogenides (a-ChGs) have shown remarkable promise, to the point where they have been referred to as the 'optical equivalent of silicon'. Chalcogenides are materials which contain one or more of the elements sulfur, selenium or tellurium as a major constituent. These materials are already widely used in applications such as photovoltaics, memory (e.g. DVDs), advanced optical devices (e.g. lasers), and in some thermoelectric generation systems. It is accepted that the move to all-optical technologies will require an intermediate stage where information processing is undertaken using a hybrid 'optoelectronic' system. This provides a strong and compelling argument for the development of a-ChGs, as they can be deposited on Si to form a hybrid approach en-route to their use as an all-optical platform. Whilst the optical properties of a-ChGs may be controlled and modified it has proved to be extremely difficult to modify their electronic properties during the material preparation, which has typically involved melting at high temperatures. Any impurities that are added to these materials in order to change the electronic behaviour are ineffective under these conditions due to the ability of the ChG material to reorder itself when melted, and so negate the desired doping effect. We have successfully pioneered a method to modify their properties by introducing dopants into a-ChGs below their melting temperature, thus not allowing the material to reorder, using ion-implantation. This method of doping allows precise control of the type of impurity introduced and is widely used in silicon technologies. As a result of this work, we have demonstrated the ability to reverse the majority charge carrier type from holes (p-type) to electrons (n-type) in a spatially localised way. This step-changing achievement enabled us to demonstrate the fabrication of optically active pn-junctions in a-ChGs, which will act as the enabling catalyst for the development of future photonic technologies. In this project we will seek to develop a full understanding of the process of carrier-type reversal on the atomic scale, and use this information to optimize it, and the materials that are to be modified, so as to add further functionality. We will also develop the required advanced engineering methods which relate to the control and activation of dopants introduced using ion-implantation into a-ChGs. Together, these will enable the demonstration of a series of optoelectronic devices demonstrating the key functionalities required to build an integrated optoelectronic technology. This programme will consolidate the position of the UK as the world leader in the field of non-equilibrium doping of chalcogenides. We will, in this way, champion these materials in the world's transition to beyond CMOS technology and therefore directly contribute to the continuing growth of the knowledge economy. We will train the next generation of scientists and engineers in state-of-the-art techniques to ensure that the UK maintains the expertise base required for this purpose, aim to ensure that the impact of this work is maximised and accelerated where possible, and communicate the results widely, including to all stakeholders in this research.

In the 20th century, the development of silicon-based electronics revolutionised the world, becoming the most pervasive technology behind modern-day life. In the 21st century, it is envisaged that technology will move to the use of light (photons) together with, or in place of, electrons, providing a dramatic increase in the speed and quantity of information processing whilst also reducing the energy required to do so. Making this transition to an all optical 'photonic' technology has proved to be a complex task, as the material of choice for electronics, silicon, is limited in its ability to control light. In the search for alternative materials, a class of glasses called amorphous chalcogenides (a-ChGs) have shown remarkable promise, to the point where they have been referred to as the 'optical equivalent of silicon'. Chalcogenides are materials which contain one or more of the elements sulfur, selenium or tellurium as a major constituent. These materials are already widely used in applications such as photovoltaics, memory (e.g. DVDs), advanced optical devices (e.g. lasers), and in some thermoelectric generation systems. It is accepted that the move to all-optical technologies will require an intermediate stage where information processing is undertaken using a hybrid 'optoelectronic' system. This provides a strong and compelling argument for the development of a-ChGs, as they can be deposited on Si to form a hybrid approach en-route to their use as an all-optical platform. Whilst the optical properties of a-ChGs may be controlled and modified it has proved to be extremely difficult to modify their electronic properties during the material preparation, which has typically involved melting at high temperatures. Any impurities that are added to these materials in order to change the electronic behaviour are ineffective under these conditions due to the ability of the ChG material to reorder itself when melted, and so negate the desired doping effect. We have successfully pioneered a method to modify their properties by introducing dopants into a-ChGs below their melting temperature, thus not allowing the material to reorder, using ion-implantation. This method of doping allows precise control of the type of impurity introduced and is widely used in silicon technologies. As a result of this work, we have demonstrated the ability to reverse the majority charge carrier type from holes (p-type) to electrons (n-type) in a spatially localised way. This step-changing achievement enabled us to demonstrate the fabrication of optically active pn-junctions in a-ChGs, which will act as the enabling catalyst for the development of future photonic technologies. In this project we will seek to develop a full understanding of the process of carrier-type reversal on the atomic scale, and use this information to optimize it, and the materials that are to be modified, so as to add further functionality. We will also develop the required advanced engineering methods which relate to the control and activation of dopants introduced using ion-implantation into a-ChGs. Together, these will enable the demonstration of a series of optoelectronic devices demonstrating the key functionalities required to build an integrated optoelectronic technology. This programme will consolidate the position of the UK as the world leader in the field of non-equilibrium doping of chalcogenides. We will, in this way, champion these materials in the world's transition to beyond CMOS technology and therefore directly contribute to the continuing growth of the knowledge economy. We will train the next generation of scientists and engineers in state-of-the-art techniques to ensure that the UK maintains the expertise base required for this purpose, aim to ensure that the impact of this work is maximised and accelerated where possible, and communicate the results widely, including to all stakeholders in this research.