Table S1 Mean Index of Kilometric Abundance (IKA) of wild vertebrate herbivores in both study sites from 2005 to 2022. IKAs are shown as the average number (±1 SE) of individuals detected per survey (the number of surveys is shown in parentheses). Surveys were carried out by the Natural Processes Monitoring Group (Doñana Biological Station). The length of surveys was 14.8 and 14.4 km in Matasgordas and Reserva, respectively. In Matasgordas, there is no or only occasional presence neither cattle nor horse. In Reserva, the maximum number of reproductive females and males (>24 months-old) for cattle and horse is shown. The number of calves and foals is not considered (Data from Doñana Biological Station and Doñana Natural Space). Table S2. Set of competing candidate Generalized Linear Mixed Models to evaluate Chamaerops humilis seedling survival. Table S3. Set of competing candidate Linear Mixed Models to evaluate Chamaerops humilis seedling height and diameter. Table S4. Results of selection of candidate Generalized Linear Mixed Models to evaluate Chamaerops humilis seedling survival ordered by Akaike Information Criterion. The most parsimonious candidate model is shown in bold. Table S5. Results of selection of candidate Linear Mixed Models to evaluate Chamaerops humilis seedling height ordered by Akaike Information Criterion. The most parsimonious candidate model is shown in bold. Table S6. Results of selection of candidate Linear Mixed Models to evaluate Chamaerops humilis seedling diameter ordered by Akaike Information Criterion. The most parsimonious candidate model is shown in bold. Figure S1. Observed average proportion of seedling survival across levels of clipping intensity throughout the field-clipping experiment in both study sites. The number of seedlings for each herbivory intensity is represented within panels. Figure S2. Observed average (±1 SE) seedling height (a, b) and diameter (c, d) of seedlings which survived by the end of field-clipping experiment depending on the levels of clipping intensity and study sites. The number of seedlings for each herbivory intensity is represented within panels. Figure S3. Pearson correlation between the number of emerged and the proportion of surviving Chamaerops humilis seedlings across faecal samples. Confidence intervals (95%) of prediction showed as grey area.

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