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We present an empirical study on historical keys in their original form from Early Modern Times (1400-1800) in Europe. We describe the internal structure of keys, and specify what was encoded and how. We present some trends of the construction of historical keys over time. Some of these trends have been sensed but never systematically documented by crypto historians, some other trends however are revealed here for the first time.

In the contemporary literature on the Ustaša organization and its terror regime, the organization is often seen and described as a vague and peripheral case study. Neither the establishment of the Ustaša state, nor the very purpose for which the organization was established, can be understood without taking into consideration the context of its formation, organizational and ideological structure as well as the influences its members were exposed to during their formative period. Therefore the article focuses on the development of its organizational and ideological aspects. The aim is to analyze the basic features and aspects of the Ustaša organization which show that by the mid-1930s, and perhaps even earlier, the Ustaša organization fully evolved into a fascist organization.

During a spectacular excavation in 1921 at the Norse farm of Herjolfsnes (Ikigaat) on the southern tip of Greenland, Poul Norlund found 58 wooden crosses of drift­wood in the graves at the site. Th ...

A major obstacle for reusing and integrating existing data is finding the data that is most relevant in a given context. The primary metadata resource is the scientific literature describing the experiments that produced the data. To stimulate the development of natural language processing methods for extracting this information from articles, we have manually annotated 100 recent open access publications in Analytical Chemistry as semantic graphs. We focused on articles mentioning mass spectrometry in their experimental sections, as we are particularly interested in the topic, which is also within the domain of several ontologies and controlled vocabularies. The resulting gold standard dataset is publicly available and directly applicable to validating automated methods for retrieving this metadata from the literature. In the process, we also made a number of observations on the structure and description of experiments and open access publication in this journal.

Southern Africa was likely exclusively inhabited by San hunter-gatherers before ~2000 years ago. Around that time, East African groups assimilated with local San groups and gave rise to the Khoekhoe herders. Subsequently, Bantu-speaking farmers, arriving from the north (~1800 years ago), assimilated and displaced San and Khoekhoe groups, a process that intensified with the arrival of European colonists ~350 years ago. In contrast to the western parts of southern Africa, where several Khoe-San groups still live today, the eastern parts are largely populated by Bantu speakers and individuals of non-African descent. Only a few scattered groups with oral traditions of Khoe-San ancestry remain. Advances in genetic research open up new ways to understand the population history of southeastern Africa. We investigate the genomic variation of the remaining individuals from two South African groups with oral histories connecting them to eastern San groups, i.e., the San from Lake Chrissie and the Duma San of the uKhahlamba-Drakensberg. Using ~2.2 million genetic markers, combined with comparative published data sets, we show that the Lake Chrissie San have genetic ancestry from both Khoe-San (likely the ||Xegwi San) and Bantu speakers. Specifically, we found that the Lake Chrissie San are closely related to the current southern San groups (i.e., the Karretjie people). Duma San individuals, on the other hand, were genetically similar to southeastern Bantu speakers from South Africa. This study illustrates how genetic tools can be used to assess hypotheses about the ancestry of people who seemingly lost their historic roots, only recalling a vague oral tradition of their origin.

The study of the economics of education has a history that can be regarded as long, or short, depending on the perspective. As early as the eighteenth and nineteenth century, physiocrats and classical economists dealt with education as an economic phenomenon.1 However, it was first in the middle of the twentieth century that education became a fundamental issue in the science of economics, due in large part to human capital theory which, among many other things, highlighted the impact of educational attainment on economic growth.2 One of the key areas of research within the field of education economics is the study of educational finance. In the OECD countries, the expected length of five-year old child’s education in the year 2000 was 16.8 years, representing more than onefifth of a child’s life expectancy. In addition, an increasing number of these individuals are internationally mobile during their education. The funding of this lengthy and geographically diverse education entails enormous costs. In 2004, it was reported that the OECD countries spent an average of 5.8 percent of their GDP on education alone.3 Issues regarding the funding of such immense costs have generated research on topics such as the effects of the marketisation of education, and the balance between national, regional and local funding of education.4 Some of this research is, as will be discussed below, historical in nature. The articles in this special issue discuss the

Abstract. Magnetic-fabric analysis is a useful tool to display deformation in nature and in models. In this study, three sandbox models represent basin inversion above a velocity discontinuity (base-plate). After complete deformation of each model, samples were taken in different parts of the models (along faults and areas away from faults) for magnetic fabric analysis. Model I, which simulates basin formation during extension, shows two kinds of magnetic fabric: an undeformed/initial fabric in areas away from faults, and a normal fault-induced fabric with a magnetic foliation that tends to align with the fault surface. Models II and III, which were initially extended before they were shortened, developed thrust faults during inversion. The thrusts show an alignment of magnetic foliation parallel to the fault surfaces that depends on the maturity of the thrust. Our results highlight that thrusting is more efficient in aligning the magnetic fabric along them compared to normal faults. Moreover, models II and III reveal a magnetic fabric overprint towards a penetrative strain-induced fabric (magnetic lineation perpendicular to shortening direction) in areas away from thrust faults. Such overprint shows a gradual transition of a magnetic fabric to a penetrative strain-induced fabric and further towards a thrust-induced fabric during shortening/inversion. In contrast, extension (Model I) developed distinct magnetic fabrics without gradual overprint. In addition, pre-existing normal faults are also overprinted to a penetrative strain-induced fabric during model inversion. They define weak zones within the main pop-up imbricate and steepen during model inversion. Steepening influences the magnetic fabric at the faults, and, in general, the strain propagation through the model during inversion. The magnetic fabric extracted from the models presented here reflect the different stages of basin development and inversion. This study is a first attempt of applying magnetic-fabric analyses on models simulating inverted basins. However, the outcome of this study illustrates the possibility of applying a robust tool, i.e., magnetic-fabric analyses, to sandbox models, whose initial, intermediate, and final stages are well documented.