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Governing marine environments is a highly complex and challenging enterprise. This applies particularly to the heavily exploited Baltic Sea for which despite extensive governance arrangements and a substantial scientific knowledge base, it is unlikely that the policy objective of ‘good environmental status’ is reached. Based on a review of governance arrangements linked to five large-scale environmental issues (eutrophication, overfishing, invasive alien species, chemical pollution and oil spills from shipping), this chapter aims to identify pathways and concrete ideas for institutional reform that may improve goal fulfilment. The results show that governance challenges differ substantially between environmental issues, implying a need for case-specific management reforms. For example, coping with extreme uncertainty is a key challenge in the chemical pollution case, whereas it seems more pertinent in the eutrophication case to address the complexity of nutrient pollution sources by adapting objectives and measures amongst sectoral policies to be in line with environmental ones. Furthermore, cross-case comparisons reveal a set of common vital functions (i.e. coordination, integration, interdisciplinarity, precaution, deliberation, communication and adaptability) that are needed in order to facilitate effective and efficient environmental governance in the long term. To promote these functions in Baltic Sea environmental governance, the chapter suggests pathways and institutional reforms aimed at improving multilevel and multisectoral integration, science-policy interactions and stakeholder participation. To further develop these ideas, it is proposed amongst other things that priority is given to setting up an international ‘Baltic Sea Policy Review Mechanism’, formed by cross-body and cross-stakeholder participation.

Connectivity was assessed during ATLAS for a diversity of organisms, from the corals that structure Vulnerable Marine Ecosystems (VMEs) to economically important fishery species using two main pathways. Predicted connectivity patterns were obtained through simulated larval Lagrangian particle modelling, based on oceanographic data gained in WP1 and reproductive knowledge produced in WP4. Realised connectivity was inferred using population genetics on sets of samples gathered before and during ATLAS, focusing on a subset of the target species initially listed, for which enough samples could be gathered to perform comprehensive population genetics analysis. Lagrangian modelling of larval dispersal within ATLAS unravelled the effect of long-term ocean variability (Atlantic Meridional Overturning Circulation - AMOC, subpolar gyre strength - SPG and North Atlantic Oscillation - NAO) and larval behaviour on particle transport pathways and population connectivity (Fox et al., 2016), the contribution of man-made structures to connectivity (Henry et al., 2018) and the application of these results to marine planning and the development of ecologically coherent marine protected area networks. This work has underlined the crucial need for data on reproductive and larval biology to inform these predictions (Fox et al., 2016). This proved to be even more important for deep-sea species due to the vast extent of the water column through which larvae can disperse. Very different outcomes can be expected depending not only on the timing of reproduction or the length of pelagic larval duration (PLD), but also on the behaviour of larvae remaining on the seafloor or migrating more or less along the water column. The relationship between PLD and “realised connectivity” as estimated through population genetics is far from easily predictable, despite some relationship existing (Riginos et al., 2011). This is likely to be worse in the deep sea as exemplified by recent models where extensive PLD resulted in extreme variance of predicted connectivity (Ross et al., 2019), possibly due to the importance of the third dimension (depth) in the space potentially explored by larvae. Nevertheless, the new method developed in ATLAS (Fox et al., 2019) allows a generic approach to optimise multi objectives in the design of MPAs. This showed that for highly dispersive behaviours, all the Northern Atlantic could in theory be connected with a favoured anti-clockwise dispersal along the slopes. Results also underlined that seamount populations may act as crucial stepping stones (hubs) in the broad scale connectivity, placing them in the priority list to maintain connectivity for a broad range of species. This important role of seamounts and offshore banks was also demonstrated through Lagrangian modelling based on the reef coral Lophelia pertusa’s reproductive and larval biology (Fox et al., 2016). As for inferences of “realised” connectivity, population genetics and genomics allow identification of distinct management units (MUs; Palsbøll et al., 2007), i.e. populations of conspecific individuals among which the degree of connectivity is sufficiently low so that each population should be monitored and managed separately, for example along the Northeast Atlantic coasts and the Mediterranean where the majority of samples analysed within ATLAS framework could be gathered. These samples laid also the foundations for a basin-scale analysis in the coming years in collaboration with partners from the northwest Atlantic under the leadership of the EU-funded project iAtlantic (see below). Importantly, genetically differentiated populations are not only demographically independent but may also shelter singular genetic diversity, one of the three components of biodiversity in need for conservation but too long neglected by management and conservation plans (Laikre et al., 2010). This was true for VMEs species such as Madrepora oculata, but also the commensal polychaete Eunice norvegica where at least one cryptic species was identified in the Atlantic. As for Lophelia pertusa, homogeneity was found in the Bay of Biscay despite some hints of differentiation of SE Rockall bank (Boavida et al., 2019b). The occurrence of those distinct MUs, or even distinct evolutionary significant units (ESUs; Ryder, 1986) in the case of Eunice sp., is essential for conservation, for each of them should be treated as distinct diversity entities, with no demographic (Brown Kodric-Brown, 1977) interdependence. This also means in case one MU would collapse, no evolutionary (Orr Unckless, 2014; Tomasini Peischl) rescue effect can be expected from the others, which needs to be accounted for in monitoring and management plans. Fish species studied in ATLAS were chosen among the target listed at the origin of the project for both their economic interest and, likewise invertebrates, the availability of samples to allow assessing connectivity over broad scales with a sufficient number of samples. Distinct MUs were also detected in the boarfish Capros aper, the horse mackerel Trachurus trachurus, and the Norway lobster Nephrops norvegicus. These MUs are demographically independent populations, thus multiple stocks expected to respond independently to harvesting and management. While the MUs in the boarfish largely agreed with the areas defined by the International Council for the Exploration of the Sea (ICES) (one exception though being noticed in the southern border), uncertainties remain for the horse mackerel and clear mismatches were revealed between MUs defined with genetic data and management areas for the Norway lobster, calling for a revision of management plans. In this report, we also develop detailed explanations of the difference between genetic and demographic independency that are essential to understand the power and limitation of population genomics, but also to account for connectivity data in management plans. We believe those explanations are essential to share with managers and stakeholders, as well as scientific colleagues expert in fields other than population genetics who are interested in applying population genetics to management and conservation. On the basis of the results obtained in ATLAS, guidelines could be provided for future management plans, whether through the identification of mismatch between fisheries management units and the genetic differentiation of stocks, or the identification of genetically specific and disconnected populations for benthic organisms characterising VMEs. In fact, nearly every species showed a singular spatial delineation of MUs, resulting in a mosaic of patterns illustrating the challenge of multispecies purpose MPAs. One result is to account for the most limited connectivity potential in management plans, to ensure the maintenance of exchanges. In fact accounting for very limited dispersal to include connectivity in spatial planning showed the need to design large areas and to favour contiguous prioritisation units for conservation (Combes et al., in prep.). Remaining uncertainties in areas where no genetic differentiation was detected is also important to consider and is different among taxa. Compared to those species for which clear MUs (or even ESUs) could be recognised, there were species and areas where no genetic differentiation could be detected (such as Lophelia pertusa in the Bay of Biscay), or no signature of bottleneck could be encountered (as was the case for most populations studied in ATLAS), despite extensive referenced exploitation or habitat destruction. In such cases it is very difficult to disentangle the real absence of barrier to gene flow and/or bottleneck from the insufficient power of the molecular method used. As demonstrated recently through simulations (Bailleul et al., 2018), there is a time lag between the moment barriers to connectivity or bottleneck occur and their signature can be detected through population genetics. This was designed as the “grey zone effect” and its duration depends on the statistical power delivered by the set of genetic markers used, but can encompass several tens to a thousand years. New generation high density genome scan analysis can help increasing the statistical power to detect such events. However, these methods are very demanding in terms of DNA quality and not all collections examined in ATLAS, particularly the older ones, gave such high quality DNA. Much work was thus dedicated during ATLAS to resolving DNA extraction protocols so that important existing deep-sea sample collections could be used. First results obtained on the two reef framework-forming corals and their associated commensal polychaete (Eunice spp., for we now know it encompasses at least two species), as well as the coral Dendrophyllia cornigera. For the last two species some samples liberated high quality DNA to build libraries that are being produced, and will allow to inferring our ability to detect hitherto ignored disruption of connectivity or bottlenecks. These data will be completed, analysed and interpreted beyond ATLAS, in the framework of iAtlantic using lessons learnt from genomic issues met and circumvented during ATLAS. Due to issues related to DNA quality, RADSeq analysis on a dozen species for which just a handful of specimens met DNA quality standards allows the provision of genomic resources to be used with protocols requiring a lower DNA quality standard. These new resources will allow optimisation of the use of old but precious specimens and DNA collections of deep-sea organisms. Along with the basin scale analysis forecast for the two main reef framework-forming corals taxa in collaboration with US partners, those are important perspectives of development beyond ATLAS, that are planned to emerge during the iAtlantic project.

About one third of the anthropogenic carbon dioxide (CO2) released into the atmosphere in the past two centuries has been taken up by the ocean. As CO2 invades the surface ocean, carbonate ion concentrations and pH are lowered. Laboratory studies indicate that this reduces the calcification rates of marine calcifying organisms, including planktic foraminifera. Such a reduction in calcification resulting from anthropogenic CO2 emissions has not been observed, or quantified in the field yet. Here we present the findings of a study in the Western Arabian Sea that uses shells of the surface water dwelling planktic foraminifer Globigerinoides ruber in order to test the hypothesis that anthropogenically induced acidification has reduced shell calcification of this species. We found that light, thin-walled shells from the surface sediment are younger (based on 14C and δ13C measurements) than the heavier, thicker-walled shells. Shells in the upper, bioturbated, sediment layer were significantly lighter compared to shells found below this layer. These observations are consistent with a scenario where anthropogenically induced ocean acidification reduced the rate at which foraminifera calcify, resulting in lighter shells. On the other hand, we show that seasonal upwelling in the area also influences their calcification and the stable isotope (δ13C and δ18O) signatures recorded by the foraminifera shells. Plankton tow and sediment trap data show that lighter shells were produced during upwelling and heavier ones during non-upwelling periods. Seasonality alone, however, cannot explain the 14C results, or the increase in shell weight below the bioturbated sediment layer. We therefore must conclude that probably both the processes of acidification and seasonal upwelling are responsible for the presence of light shells in the top of the sediment and the age difference between thick and thin specimens.

Los efectos beneficiosos del consumo de pescado son bien reconocidos. Sin embargo, existe preocupación a nivel mundial sobre los niveles de metilmercurio en el pescado, por lo que muchos países como Estados Unidos, Australia, Nueza Zelanda, Canadá y muchos países europeos han realizado recomendaciones de consumo de pescado a la población , especialmente a los grupos vulnerables con el fin de reducir la ingesta de metilmercurio. La sangre y el pelo son las mejores muestras biológicas para medir el metilmercurio. El método de análisis más empleado ha sido la espectroscopia de absorción atómica con la técnica del vapor frío, aunque existen también métodos directos que se basan en la descomposición térmica de la muestra. En los últimos años han aumentado los laboratorios que miden el mercurio por espectrometría de masas con plasma acoplado por inducción. Además, se puede diferenciar las distintas especies de mercurio acoplando métodos de separación cromatográficos. Es necesario que los laboratorios que analizan mercurio en muestras biológicas participen en programas de garantía externa de la calidad. Aunque se logre reducir las emisiones de mercurio, el mercurio del medio ambiente todavía puede permanecer muchos años, por lo que es fundamental el consejo dietético para disminuir la exposición. No es aconsejable el uso de terapia quelante con fines diagnósticos o en pacientes asintomáticos. Es preciso proponer medidas de salud pública encaminadas a la disminución de la exposición al mercurio y que se evalúe también los beneficios de las mismas desde el punto de vista económico y social.

Please click 'VIEW MORE FILES' (above 'Author') to see all of the information sheets. The Explorers Wild about Wildlife on the Seashore information sheets include: Shellfish; Crustaceans; Fish; Jellyfish, Anemones & Corals; Lichen; Seaweed; Sponges & Squirts; Stars & Urchins; Worms & Éisc (our 'Fish' resource as Gaeilge). The information sheets provide a fun and informative introduction to each species. Each information sheet includes a coloured photo; quick facts including the English, Irish and Scientific name, size, colour, and lifespan. The information sheets also provide information highlighting: where you will find me; what I look like; how I protect myself; what I eat; what likes to eat me; and how I reproduce. The Explorers Education Programme is funded by the Marine Institute, Ireland’s state agency for marine research, technology development and innovation. The Explorers Education Programme is managed by the Camden Education Trust. The Explorers Wild about Wildlife on the Seashore explores all of the amazing animals, seaweeds, and plants that can be found around Ireland's shore lines. There are 8 information sheets that can be used in the classroom to help teachers and children with their seashore discovery. Marine Institute

Create a roadmap to standardize spatio-temporal CPUE indices QUAR_ONE

Changes in marine net primary productivity (PP) and export of particulate organic carbon (EP) are projected over the 21st century with four global coupled carbon cycle-climate models. These include representations of marine ecosystems and the carbon cycle of different structure and complexity. All four models show a decrease in global mean PP and EP between 2 and 20% by 2100 relative to preindustrial conditions, for the SRES A2 emission scenario. Two different regimes for productivity changes are consistently identified in all models. The first chain of mechanisms is dominant in the low- and mid-latitude ocean and in the North Atlantic: reduced input of macro-nutrients into the euphotic zone related to enhanced stratification, reduced mixed layer depth, and slowed circulation causes a decrease in macro-nutrient concentrations and in PP and EP. The second regime is projected for parts of the Southern Ocean: an alleviation of light and/or temperature limitation leads to an increase in PP and EP as productivity is fueled by a sustained nutrient input. A region of disagreement among the models is the Arctic, where three models project an increase in PP while one model projects a decrease. Projected changes in seasonal and interannual variability are modest in most regions. Regional model skill metrics are proposed to generate multi-model mean fields that show an improved skill in representing observation-based estimates compared to a simple multi-model average. Model results are compared to recent productivity projections with three different algorithms, usually applied to infer net primary production from satellite observations.

Instrumental records from the Norwegian Sea and the Trondheimsfjord show evidence that changes of bottom water temperature and salinity in the fjord are linked to the salinity and temperature variability of the North Atlantic Current (NAC). Changes in primary productivity and salinity in the surface and intermediate water masses in the Trondheimsfjord as well as the fjord sedimentary budget are mainly driven by changes in riverine input. In this study we use 59 surface sediment samples that are evenly distributed in the fjord to examine whether dinocyst assemblages and stable isotope ratios of benthic foraminifera reflect the present-day hydrology and can be used as palaeoceanographic proxies. In general, modern benthic δ18O and δ13C values decrease from the fjord entrance towards the fjord head with lowest values close to river inlets. This is essentially explained by gradients in the amounts of fresh water and terrigenous organic matter delivered from the hinterland. The distribution of benthic δ13C ratios across the fjord is controlled by the origin (terrigenous vs. marine) of organic matter, local topography-induced variability in organic matter flux at the water–sediment interface, and organic matter degradation. The dinocyst assemblages display the variations in hydrography with respect to the prevailing currents, the topography, and the freshwater and nutrient supply from rivers. The strength and depth of the pycnocline in the fjord strongly vary seasonally and thereby affect water mass characteristics as well as nutrient availability, temporally creating local conditions that explain the observed species distribution. Our results prove that dinocyst assemblages and benthic foraminiferal isotopes reliably mirror the complex fjord hydrology and can be used as proxies of Holocene climatic variability.