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Aircraft Design and Sytems Group (AERO) @ Hamburg University of Applied Sciences - Prof. Dr. Scholz
19 Research products

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    Authors: Cheema, John Singh;

    Zweck - In dieser Bachelorarbeit werden die öffentlich nicht zugänglichen Technologieparameter von Passagierflugzeugen näherungsweise bestimmt. Das sind maximaler Auftriebsbeiwert bei Start und Landung, maximale Gleitzahl und spezifischer Kraftstoffverbrauch im Reiseflug. Folgende Flugzeuge werden paarweise untersucht und verglichen: A340-300 und IL-96-300, Boeing 727-200 Advanced und TU-154M, Fokker 100 und MD-82, A319-100 und An-72. --- Methodik - Die Berechnung erfolgt mit dem Excel-basierten Werkzeug "Passenger Jet Reverse Engineering" (PJRE). Grundlage der Berechnung ist die aus dem Flugzeugentwurf bekannte Dimensionierung mit dem Entwurfsdiagramm. Für die ausgewählten Passagierflugzeuge werden die erforderlichen Eingangsparameter recherchiert. Die zunächst unbekannten Technologieparameter werden dann mit PRJE sowohl ermittelt als auch verifiziert. --- Ergebnisse - Die Ergebnisse aus dem Reverse Engineering stimmen recht gut überein mit den Werten aus der Verifikation. Lediglich die Werte der maximalen Gleitzahl im Reiseflug sind berechnet aus der Verifikation oft deutlich höher als berechnet aus dem Reverse Engineering. Der spezifische Kraftstoffverbrauch im Reiseflug hat sich über die Jahrzehnte der Flugzeugentwicklung stark verringert. --- Bedeutung für die Praxis - Durch die Konkurrenzsituation der Flugzeughersteller können viele Flugzeugparameter nicht öffentlich zur Verfügung gestellt werden. Die Anwendung von PJRE zeigt, wie diese Parameter trotzdem näherungsweise ermittelt werden können. --- Soziale Bedeutung - Eine detaillierte Diskussion über Flugkosten, Ticketpreise und die Umweltverträglichkeit des Flugverkehrs setzt detaillierte Kenntnisse über die Flugzeuge voraus. Durch ein Reverse Engineering können Verbraucher diese Diskussion mit der Industrie auf Augenhöhe führen. --- Originalität / Wert - Nach der Entwicklung von PJRE wird die Methode hier zum ersten Mal angewandt.

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    Authors: Gerdes, Mike;

    Reducing unscheduled maintenance is important for aircraft operators. There are significant costs if flights must be delayed or cancelled, for example, if spares are not available and have to be shipped across the world. This thesis describes three methods of aircraft health condition monitoring and prediction; one for system monitoring, one for forecasting and one combining the two other methods for a complete monitoring and prediction process. Together, the three methods allow organizations to forecast possible failures. The first two use decision trees for decision-making and genetic optimization to improve the performance of the decision trees and to reduce the need for human interaction. Decision trees have several advantages: the generated code is quickly and easily processed, it can be altered by human experts without much work, it is readable by humans, and it requires few resources for learning and evaluation. The readability and the ability to modify the results are especially important; special knowledge can be gained and errors produced by the automated code generation can be removed. A large number of data sets is needed for meaningful predictions. This thesis uses two data sources: first, data from existing aircraft sensors, and second, sound and vibration data from additionally installed sensors. It draws on methods from the field of big data and machine learning to analyse and prepare the data sets for the prediction process.

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    Authors: Caers, Brecht;

    Purpose - Find optimal flight and design parameters for three objectives: minimum fuel consumption, Direct Operating Costs (DOC), and environmental impact of a passenger jet aircraft. --- Approach - Combining multiple models (this includes aerodynamics, specific fuel consumption, DOC, and equivalent CO2 mass) into one generic model. In this combined model, each objective's importance is determined by a weighting factor. Additionally, the possibility of further optimizing this model by altering an aircraft's wing loading is analyzed. --- Research limitations - Most models use estimating equations based on first principles and statistical data. --- Practical implications - The optimal cruise altitude and speed for a specific objective can be approximated for any passenger jet aircraft. --- Social implications - By using a simple approach, the discussion of optimizing aircraft opens up to a level where everyone can participate. --- Value - To find a general answer on how to optimize aviation, operational and design-wise, by using a simple approach.

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    Authors: Ahlefelder, Sebastian;

    Zapfluft und Wellenleistung wird den Triebwerken entnommen, um die Energie für beispielsweise die Kraftstoffpumpen, das Inflight Entertainment oder die Flügelvorderkantenenteisung zu erzeugen. Diese Energiegenerierung, hat einen Anstieg des Kraftstoffverbrauches zur Folge. Es hat sich herausgestellt, dass die Stelle der Zapfluftentnahme einen starken Einfluss auf den Gradienten des Brennstoffverbrauches hat. Das Projekt beschäftigt sich mit zwei- und dreiwelligen Turbofantriebwerken und untersucht an ihnen, die Effekte der Leistungsnahmen. Als Simulationssoftware wurde GasTurb 8.0 eingesetzt und auf die integrierten Triebwerkskonfigurationen zurückgegriffen. Ziel der Arbeit ist die Ermittlung einer mathematischen Beziehung zur Berechnung des zusätzlichen Kraftstoffmassenstromes infolge einer Zapfluft- oder Wellenleistungsentnahme. So stellt sich die Frage, welche Triebwerksparameter dafür berücksichtigt werden müssen. Eine Wellenleistungsentnahme verursacht beispielsweise einen linearen Anstieg des spezifischen Kraftstoffverbrauches. Ist diese Zunahme, identisch mit der einer Zapfluftentnahme? Am Ende der Kapitel werden die Ergebnisse mit Literaturwerten verglichen und versucht Tendenzen zu erkennen bzw. bestehende zu erhärten.

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    Authors: Desenfans, Philip;

    Purpose - The paper presents a theoretical framework that describes the aerodynamics of a falling maple (Acer pseudoplatanus) seed. --- Methodology - A semi-empirical method is developed that provides a ratio stating how much longer a seed falls in air compared to freefall. The generated lift is calculated by evaluating the integral of two-dimensional airfoil elements using a preliminary falling speed. This allows for the calculation of the definitive falling speed using Blade Element Momentum Theory (BEMT); hereafter, the fall duration in air and in freefall are obtained. Furthermore, the input-variables of the calculation of lift are transformed to require only the length and width of the maple seed. Lastly, the method is applied to two calculation examples as a means of validation. --- Findings - The two example calculations gave percentual errors of 5.5% and 3.7% for the falling speed when compared to measured values. The averaged result is that a maple seed falls 9.9 times longer in air when released from 20 m; however, this result is highly dependent on geometrical parameters which can be accounted for using the constructed method. --- Research limitations - Firstly, the coefficient of lift is unknown for the shape of a maple seed. Secondly, the approximated transient state is yet to be verified by measurement. --- Originality / Value - The added value of this report lies in the reduction of simplifications compared to BEMT approaches. In this way a large amount of accuracy is achieved due to the inclusion of many geometrical parameters, even though simplicity is maintained. This has been accomplished through constructing a simple three-step method that is fundamental and essentially non-iterative.

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    Authors: Lakies, Marcel;

    In this report an equation is derived to calculate the dynamic effect of primary and secondary aircraft cabin air contamination. The equation is applied in order to understand implications and hazards. Primary contamination is from an outside source in form of normal low level contamination or high level contamination in a failure case. Secondary contamination originates from deposited material released into the cabin by a trigger event. The dynamic effect is described as an initial value problem (IVP) of a system governed by a nonhomogeneous linear first order ordinary differential equation (ODE). More complicated excitations are treated as a sequence of IVPs. The ODE is solved from first principles. Spreadsheets are provided with sample calculations that can be adapted to user needs. The method is not limited to a particular principle of the environmental control system (ECS) or contamination substance. The report considers cabin air recirculation and several locations of contamination sources, filters, and deposit points (where contaminants can accumulate and from where they can be released). This is a level of detail so far not considered in the cabin air literature. Various primary and secondary cabin contamination scenarios are calculated with plausible input parameters taken from popular passenger aircraft. A large cabin volume, high air exchange rate, large filtered air recirculation rate, and high absorption rates at deposit points lead to low contamination concentration at given source strength. Especially high contamination concentrations would result if large deposits of contaminants are released in a short time. The accuracy of the results depends on the accuracy of the input parameters. Five different approaches to reduce the contaminant concentration in the aircraft cabin are discussed and evaluated. More effective solutions involve higher implementation efforts. The method and the spreadsheets allow predicting cabin air contamination concentrations independent of confidential industrial input parameters.

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    Authors: Niklas Brüge; Felix Kranich;

    Diese Projektarbeit versucht zu erklären, warum Flugzeuge mit drei oder vier Triebwerken kaum noch verkauft werden. Dabei wird insbesondere der Vermutung nachgegangen, dass Flugzeuge mit einer größeren Anzahl an Triebwerken höhere Wartungskosten haben könnten. Zur Beantwortung der Frage werden sechs verschiedene Methoden zur Berechnung von Betriebskosten (Direct Operating Costs, DOC) von Passagierflugzeugen herangezogen, die u.a. auch die Kosten der Triebwerkswartung abschätzen. Vier dieser DOC-Methoden sind von Organisationen: Air Transport Association of America (ATA 1967), Deutsche Lufthansa (DLH 1982), Association of European Airlines (AEA 1989), Airbus Industrie (AI 1989). Zwei DOC-Methoden wurden an Universitäten entwickelt und sind von Jenkinson bzw. von Thorbeck (TU Berlin, TUB). Weiterhin werden grundsätzliche flugmechanische Überlegungen angestellt und die Literatur durchgesehen, die aber nur wenige Hinweise zur Beantwortung der Fragestellung enthält. Die Gleichungen zur Berechnung der Triebwerkswartungskosten aller sechs Methoden werden dargelegt und erklärt. Die Methoden unterscheiden sich stark in ihrer Komplexität. Da die Methoden sich auf unterschiedliche Jahre beziehen werden die Kosten mit einem Inflationsfaktor auf das Jahr 2017 umgerechnet und somit vergleichbar gemacht. Zum Vergleich werden weiterhin die Gleichungen zur Berechnung der Wartungskosten der Flugzeugzelle angegeben. Zur Berechnung der Triebwerkswartungskosten wurden vier in der Größe vergleichbare Mittelstreckenflugzeuge ausgewählt: B737-800, A318 (zwei Triebwerke), Jak-42 (drei Triebwerke), BAE 146-300 (vier Triebwerke). Weiterhin wurden vier in der Größe vergleichbare Langstreckenflugzeug ausgewählt: A330-300 (zwei Triebwerke), MD11-ER, TriStar (drei Triebwerke), A340-300 (vier Triebwerke). Zum Vergleich eignen sich besonders der A330 und der A340 da die Technik, das Alter und die Abmaße sehr eng bei einander liegen. Im Ergebnis wurde festgestellt, dass sich die Aufteilung der Wartungskosten zwischen Zelle und Triebwerken uneinheitlich zeigt. Die AI-Methode ergibt im Vergleich viel zu hohe Triebwerkskosten. Der Grund dafür ist die direkte Multiplikation von Schub mit den Lohnkosten. Die AI-Methode muss daher bei der Endanalyse unberücksichtigt bleiben. Bei den Mittelstreckenflugzeugen lieferten die Methoden nach AEA, DLH und TUB ähnliche Ergebnisse. Bei den Langstreckenflugzeugen lieferten die AEA-Methode, DLH-Methode und die Methode nach Jenkison ähnliche Ergebnisse. Empfohlen werden kann damit eine Berechnung mit der AEA-Methode, die auch öffentlich ist. Für einen Endvergleich wurden für die Mittel- bzw. Langstrecke zu jeder Triebwerksanzahl nur jeweils ein Flugzeug einbezogen. Mit dieser bereinigten Auswahl bei Flugzeugen und Methoden ergab sich für die Mittelstrecke eine leichte Abnahme der Triebwerkswartungskosten mit der Triebwerksanzahl von nur 6,1 US$ pro Flugstunde pro Triebwerk (Zunahme von -6,1 US$/FH/Triebwerk). Für die Langstrecke ergab sich eine leichte Zunahme der Triebwerkswartungskosten mit der Triebwerksanzahl von nur 32,5 US$ pro Flugstunde pro Triebwerk. Damit konnte die eingangs genannte Vermutung über eine Zunahme der Triebwerkswartungskosten mit der Anzahl der Triebwerke nur zum Teil bestätigt werden. Die Analyse zeigte, dass die Triebwerkswartungskosten von vielen Parametern abhängen, die Triebwerksanzahl ist nur ein Parameter von vielen. Selbst ähnliche Flugzeuge liefern bei gleicher Triebwerkszahl daher Triebwerkswartungskosten, die sich stark unterscheiden und die Abhängigkeit von der Triebwerkszahl wenig sichtbar werden lassen. Es werden Vorschläge gemacht, welche anderen methodischen Ansätze hier Abhilfe schaffen könnten.

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    Authors: Gregorian, Hayk;

    Purpose - This bachelor thesis compares high-speed rail (HSR) transport with air transport. The investigation considers physical fundamentals, energy consumption, environmental impact, infrastructure and investment, market situations, passenger's selection criteria to choose transportation options, and overall economics. --- Methodology - The thesis combines an investigation of physical principles with a literature review. --- Findings - Steel wheels on steel rails show by far less rolling resistance to support the train's weight than drag due to lift (induced drag) to support the aircraft's weight. This leads to less energy consumption. HSR trains use electricity from an overhead line. Hence, the environmental impact of HSR also depends much on how the electricity is produced. Airplanes only need an air traffic control environment to connect airports. In contrast, HSR needs infrastructure to connect stations. The amount of necessary infrastructure depends on the geological conditions. For example, crossing mountains means high investment. Longer passages over water are infeasible for HSR. High-speed rail is superior to air transport when connecting megacities because the trains have higher transport capacity, offer higher service frequencies and mission reliability, shorter total travel time, shorter access time to stations, shorter unproductive waiting time in stations and potentially lower travel costs. HSR is a strong competitor to airline services and has replaced some short range flights. A comparison of HSR in different world regions shows differences in the market situation and in passenger's selection criteria for transportation options. --- Research limitations - The potential of high-speed rail was investigated mainly on busy routes with high service frequencies. A comprehensive network comparison between high-speed trains and airplanes was not done and could lead to somewhat different results. --- Practical implications - The report tries to contribute arguments to the discussion about alternatives to air travel. --- Social implications - With more knowledge people can make an educated choice between transport options, can vote with their feet, and can take a firm position in the public discussion. --- Originality/value - A general comparison of HSR and air transport from physical fundamentals to economics seemed to be missing.

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    Authors: Rodrigo, Clinton;

    Purpose - This thesis presents a comparison of aircraft design concepts to identify the superior propulsion system model among turbo-hydraulic, turbo-electric and classic jet propulsion with respect to Direct Operating Costs (DOC), environmental impact and fuel burn. --- Approach - A simple aircraft model was designed based on the Top-Level Aircraft Requirements of the Airbus A320 passenger aircraft, and novel engine concepts were integrated to establish new models. Numerous types of propulsion system configurations were created by varying the type of gas turbine engine and number of propulsors. --- Findings - After an elaborate comparison of the aforementioned concepts, the all turbo-hydraulic propulsion system is found to be superior to the all turbo-electric propulsion system. A new propulsion system concept was developed by combining the thrust of a turbofan engine and utilizing the power produced by the turbo-hydraulic propulsion system that is delivered via propellers. The new partial turbo-hydraulic propulsion concept in which 20% of the total cruise power is coming from the (hydraulic driven) propellers is even more efficient than an all turbo-hydraulic concept in terms of DOC, environmental impact and fuel burn. --- Research Limitations - The aircraft were modelled with a spreadsheet based on handbook methods and relevant statistics. The investigation was done only for one type of reference aircraft and one route. A detailed analysis with a greater number of reference aircraft and types of routes could lead to other results. --- Practical Implications - With the provided spreadsheet, the DOC and environmental impact can be approximated for any commercial reference aircraft combined with the aforementioned propulsion system concepts. --- Social Implications - Based on the results of this thesis, the public will be able to discuss the demerits of otherwise highly lauded electric propulsion concepts. --- Value - To evaluate the viability of the hydraulic propulsion systems for passenger aircraft using simple mass models and aircraft design concept.

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    Authors: Budziak, Kinga;

    This project evaluates the suitability and practicality of the program Athena Vortex Lattice (AVL) by Mark Drela. A short user guide was written to make it easier (especially for students) to get started with the program AVL. AVL was applied to calculate the induced drag and the Oswald factor. In a first task, AVL was used to calculate simple wings of different aspect ratio A and taper ratio lambda. The Oswald factor was calculated as a function f(lambda) in the same way as shown by HOERNER. Compared to HOERNER's function, the error never exceed 7.5%. Surprisingly, the function f(lambda) was not independent of aspect ratio, as could be assumed from HOERNER. Variations of f(lambda) with aspect ratio were studied and general results found. In a second task, the box wing was investigated. Box wings of different h/b ratio: 0.31, 0.62, and 0.93 were calculated in AVL. The induced drag and Oswald factor in all these cases was calculated. An equation, generally used in the literature, describes the box wing's Oswald factor with parameters k1, k2, k3 and k4. These parameters were found from results obtained with AVL by means of the Excel Solver. In this way the curve k = f(h/b) was plotted. The curve was compared with curves with various theories and experiments conducted prior by other students. The curve built based on AVL fits very well with the curve from HOERNER, PRANDTL and a second experiment made in the wind tunnel at HAW Hamburg.

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Aircraft Design and Sytems Group (AERO) @ Hamburg University of Applied Sciences - Prof. Dr. Scholz
19 Research products
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    Authors: Cheema, John Singh;

    Zweck - In dieser Bachelorarbeit werden die öffentlich nicht zugänglichen Technologieparameter von Passagierflugzeugen näherungsweise bestimmt. Das sind maximaler Auftriebsbeiwert bei Start und Landung, maximale Gleitzahl und spezifischer Kraftstoffverbrauch im Reiseflug. Folgende Flugzeuge werden paarweise untersucht und verglichen: A340-300 und IL-96-300, Boeing 727-200 Advanced und TU-154M, Fokker 100 und MD-82, A319-100 und An-72. --- Methodik - Die Berechnung erfolgt mit dem Excel-basierten Werkzeug "Passenger Jet Reverse Engineering" (PJRE). Grundlage der Berechnung ist die aus dem Flugzeugentwurf bekannte Dimensionierung mit dem Entwurfsdiagramm. Für die ausgewählten Passagierflugzeuge werden die erforderlichen Eingangsparameter recherchiert. Die zunächst unbekannten Technologieparameter werden dann mit PRJE sowohl ermittelt als auch verifiziert. --- Ergebnisse - Die Ergebnisse aus dem Reverse Engineering stimmen recht gut überein mit den Werten aus der Verifikation. Lediglich die Werte der maximalen Gleitzahl im Reiseflug sind berechnet aus der Verifikation oft deutlich höher als berechnet aus dem Reverse Engineering. Der spezifische Kraftstoffverbrauch im Reiseflug hat sich über die Jahrzehnte der Flugzeugentwicklung stark verringert. --- Bedeutung für die Praxis - Durch die Konkurrenzsituation der Flugzeughersteller können viele Flugzeugparameter nicht öffentlich zur Verfügung gestellt werden. Die Anwendung von PJRE zeigt, wie diese Parameter trotzdem näherungsweise ermittelt werden können. --- Soziale Bedeutung - Eine detaillierte Diskussion über Flugkosten, Ticketpreise und die Umweltverträglichkeit des Flugverkehrs setzt detaillierte Kenntnisse über die Flugzeuge voraus. Durch ein Reverse Engineering können Verbraucher diese Diskussion mit der Industrie auf Augenhöhe führen. --- Originalität / Wert - Nach der Entwicklung von PJRE wird die Methode hier zum ersten Mal angewandt.

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    Authors: Gerdes, Mike;

    Reducing unscheduled maintenance is important for aircraft operators. There are significant costs if flights must be delayed or cancelled, for example, if spares are not available and have to be shipped across the world. This thesis describes three methods of aircraft health condition monitoring and prediction; one for system monitoring, one for forecasting and one combining the two other methods for a complete monitoring and prediction process. Together, the three methods allow organizations to forecast possible failures. The first two use decision trees for decision-making and genetic optimization to improve the performance of the decision trees and to reduce the need for human interaction. Decision trees have several advantages: the generated code is quickly and easily processed, it can be altered by human experts without much work, it is readable by humans, and it requires few resources for learning and evaluation. The readability and the ability to modify the results are especially important; special knowledge can be gained and errors produced by the automated code generation can be removed. A large number of data sets is needed for meaningful predictions. This thesis uses two data sources: first, data from existing aircraft sensors, and second, sound and vibration data from additionally installed sensors. It draws on methods from the field of big data and machine learning to analyse and prepare the data sets for the prediction process.

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    Authors: Caers, Brecht;

    Purpose - Find optimal flight and design parameters for three objectives: minimum fuel consumption, Direct Operating Costs (DOC), and environmental impact of a passenger jet aircraft. --- Approach - Combining multiple models (this includes aerodynamics, specific fuel consumption, DOC, and equivalent CO2 mass) into one generic model. In this combined model, each objective's importance is determined by a weighting factor. Additionally, the possibility of further optimizing this model by altering an aircraft's wing loading is analyzed. --- Research limitations - Most models use estimating equations based on first principles and statistical data. --- Practical implications - The optimal cruise altitude and speed for a specific objective can be approximated for any passenger jet aircraft. --- Social implications - By using a simple approach, the discussion of optimizing aircraft opens up to a level where everyone can participate. --- Value - To find a general answer on how to optimize aviation, operational and design-wise, by using a simple approach.

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    Authors: Ahlefelder, Sebastian;

    Zapfluft und Wellenleistung wird den Triebwerken entnommen, um die Energie für beispielsweise die Kraftstoffpumpen, das Inflight Entertainment oder die Flügelvorderkantenenteisung zu erzeugen. Diese Energiegenerierung, hat einen Anstieg des Kraftstoffverbrauches zur Folge. Es hat sich herausgestellt, dass die Stelle der Zapfluftentnahme einen starken Einfluss auf den Gradienten des Brennstoffverbrauches hat. Das Projekt beschäftigt sich mit zwei- und dreiwelligen Turbofantriebwerken und untersucht an ihnen, die Effekte der Leistungsnahmen. Als Simulationssoftware wurde GasTurb 8.0 eingesetzt und auf die integrierten Triebwerkskonfigurationen zurückgegriffen. Ziel der Arbeit ist die Ermittlung einer mathematischen Beziehung zur Berechnung des zusätzlichen Kraftstoffmassenstromes infolge einer Zapfluft- oder Wellenleistungsentnahme. So stellt sich die Frage, welche Triebwerksparameter dafür berücksichtigt werden müssen. Eine Wellenleistungsentnahme verursacht beispielsweise einen linearen Anstieg des spezifischen Kraftstoffverbrauches. Ist diese Zunahme, identisch mit der einer Zapfluftentnahme? Am Ende der Kapitel werden die Ergebnisse mit Literaturwerten verglichen und versucht Tendenzen zu erkennen bzw. bestehende zu erhärten.

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    Authors: Desenfans, Philip;

    Purpose - The paper presents a theoretical framework that describes the aerodynamics of a falling maple (Acer pseudoplatanus) seed. --- Methodology - A semi-empirical method is developed that provides a ratio stating how much longer a seed falls in air compared to freefall. The generated lift is calculated by evaluating the integral of two-dimensional airfoil elements using a preliminary falling speed. This allows for the calculation of the definitive falling speed using Blade Element Momentum Theory (BEMT); hereafter, the fall duration in air and in freefall are obtained. Furthermore, the input-variables of the calculation of lift are transformed to require only the length and width of the maple seed. Lastly, the method is applied to two calculation examples as a means of validation. --- Findings - The two example calculations gave percentual errors of 5.5% and 3.7% for the falling speed when compared to measured values. The averaged result is that a maple seed falls 9.9 times longer in air when released from 20 m; however, this result is highly dependent on geometrical parameters which can be accounted for using the constructed method. --- Research limitations - Firstly, the coefficient of lift is unknown for the shape of a maple seed. Secondly, the approximated transient state is yet to be verified by measurement. --- Originality / Value - The added value of this report lies in the reduction of simplifications compared to BEMT approaches. In this way a large amount of accuracy is achieved due to the inclusion of many geometrical parameters, even though simplicity is maintained. This has been accomplished through constructing a simple three-step method that is fundamental and essentially non-iterative.

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    Authors: Lakies, Marcel;

    In this report an equation is derived to calculate the dynamic effect of primary and secondary aircraft cabin air contamination. The equation is applied in order to understand implications and hazards. Primary contamination is from an outside source in form of normal low level contamination or high level contamination in a failure case. Secondary contamination originates from deposited material released into the cabin by a trigger event. The dynamic effect is described as an initial value problem (IVP) of a system governed by a nonhomogeneous linear first order ordinary differential equation (ODE). More complicated excitations are treated as a sequence of IVPs. The ODE is solved from first principles. Spreadsheets are provided with sample calculations that can be adapted to user needs. The method is not limited to a particular principle of the environmental control system (ECS) or contamination substance. The report considers cabin air recirculation and several locations of contamination sources, filters, and deposit points (where contaminants can accumulate and from where they can be released). This is a level of detail so far not considered in the cabin air literature. Various primary and secondary cabin contamination scenarios are calculated with plausible input parameters taken from popular passenger aircraft. A large cabin volume, high air exchange rate, large filtered air recirculation rate, and high absorption rates at deposit points lead to low contamination concentration at given source strength. Especially high contamination concentrations would result if large deposits of contaminants are released in a short time. The accuracy of the results depends on the accuracy of the input parameters. Five different approaches to reduce the contaminant concentration in the aircraft cabin are discussed and evaluated. More effective solutions involve higher implementation efforts. The method and the spreadsheets allow predicting cabin air contamination concentrations independent of confidential industrial input parameters.

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    Authors: Niklas Brüge; Felix Kranich;

    Diese Projektarbeit versucht zu erklären, warum Flugzeuge mit drei oder vier Triebwerken kaum noch verkauft werden. Dabei wird insbesondere der Vermutung nachgegangen, dass Flugzeuge mit einer größeren Anzahl an Triebwerken höhere Wartungskosten haben könnten. Zur Beantwortung der Frage werden sechs verschiedene Methoden zur Berechnung von Betriebskosten (Direct Operating Costs, DOC) von Passagierflugzeugen herangezogen, die u.a. auch die Kosten der Triebwerkswartung abschätzen. Vier dieser DOC-Methoden sind von Organisationen: Air Transport Association of America (ATA 1967), Deutsche Lufthansa (DLH 1982), Association of European Airlines (AEA 1989), Airbus Industrie (AI 1989). Zwei DOC-Methoden wurden an Universitäten entwickelt und sind von Jenkinson bzw. von Thorbeck (TU Berlin, TUB). Weiterhin werden grundsätzliche flugmechanische Überlegungen angestellt und die Literatur durchgesehen, die aber nur wenige Hinweise zur Beantwortung der Fragestellung enthält. Die Gleichungen zur Berechnung der Triebwerkswartungskosten aller sechs Methoden werden dargelegt und erklärt. Die Methoden unterscheiden sich stark in ihrer Komplexität. Da die Methoden sich auf unterschiedliche Jahre beziehen werden die Kosten mit einem Inflationsfaktor auf das Jahr 2017 umgerechnet und somit vergleichbar gemacht. Zum Vergleich werden weiterhin die Gleichungen zur Berechnung der Wartungskosten der Flugzeugzelle angegeben. Zur Berechnung der Triebwerkswartungskosten wurden vier in der Größe vergleichbare Mittelstreckenflugzeuge ausgewählt: B737-800, A318 (zwei Triebwerke), Jak-42 (drei Triebwerke), BAE 146-300 (vier Triebwerke). Weiterhin wurden vier in der Größe vergleichbare Langstreckenflugzeug ausgewählt: A330-300 (zwei Triebwerke), MD11-ER, TriStar (drei Triebwerke), A340-300 (vier Triebwerke). Zum Vergleich eignen sich besonders der A330 und der A340 da die Technik, das Alter und die Abmaße sehr eng bei einander liegen. Im Ergebnis wurde festgestellt, dass sich die Aufteilung der Wartungskosten zwischen Zelle und Triebwerken uneinheitlich zeigt. Die AI-Methode ergibt im Vergleich viel zu hohe Triebwerkskosten. Der Grund dafür ist die direkte Multiplikation von Schub mit den Lohnkosten. Die AI-Methode muss daher bei der Endanalyse unberücksichtigt bleiben. Bei den Mittelstreckenflugzeugen lieferten die Methoden nach AEA, DLH und TUB ähnliche Ergebnisse. Bei den Langstreckenflugzeugen lieferten die AEA-Methode, DLH-Methode und die Methode nach Jenkison ähnliche Ergebnisse. Empfohlen werden kann damit eine Berechnung mit der AEA-Methode, die auch öffentlich ist. Für einen Endvergleich wurden für die Mittel- bzw. Langstrecke zu jeder Triebwerksanzahl nur jeweils ein Flugzeug einbezogen. Mit dieser bereinigten Auswahl bei Flugzeugen und Methoden ergab sich für die Mittelstrecke eine leichte Abnahme der Triebwerkswartungskosten mit der Triebwerksanzahl von nur 6,1 US$ pro Flugstunde pro Triebwerk (Zunahme von -6,1 US$/FH/Triebwerk). Für die Langstrecke ergab sich eine leichte Zunahme der Triebwerkswartungskosten mit der Triebwerksanzahl von nur 32,5 US$ pro Flugstunde pro Triebwerk. Damit konnte die eingangs genannte Vermutung über eine Zunahme der Triebwerkswartungskosten mit der Anzahl der Triebwerke nur zum Teil bestätigt werden. Die Analyse zeigte, dass die Triebwerkswartungskosten von vielen Parametern abhängen, die Triebwerksanzahl ist nur ein Parameter von vielen. Selbst ähnliche Flugzeuge liefern bei gleicher Triebwerkszahl daher Triebwerkswartungskosten, die sich stark unterscheiden und die Abhängigkeit von der Triebwerkszahl wenig sichtbar werden lassen. Es werden Vorschläge gemacht, welche anderen methodischen Ansätze hier Abhilfe schaffen könnten.

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    Authors: Gregorian, Hayk;

    Purpose - This bachelor thesis compares high-speed rail (HSR) transport with air transport. The investigation considers physical fundamentals, energy consumption, environmental impact, infrastructure and investment, market situations, passenger's selection criteria to choose transportation options, and overall economics. --- Methodology - The thesis combines an investigation of physical principles with a literature review. --- Findings - Steel wheels on steel rails show by far less rolling resistance to support the train's weight than drag due to lift (induced drag) to support the aircraft's weight. This leads to less energy consumption. HSR trains use electricity from an overhead line. Hence, the environmental impact of HSR also depends much on how the electricity is produced. Airplanes only need an air traffic control environment to connect airports. In contrast, HSR needs infrastructure to connect stations. The amount of necessary infrastructure depends on the geological conditions. For example, crossing mountains means high investment. Longer passages over water are infeasible for HSR. High-speed rail is superior to air transport when connecting megacities because the trains have higher transport capacity, offer higher service frequencies and mission reliability, shorter total travel time, shorter access time to stations, shorter unproductive waiting time in stations and potentially lower travel costs. HSR is a strong competitor to airline services and has replaced some short range flights. A comparison of HSR in different world regions shows differences in the market situation and in passenger's selection criteria for transportation options. --- Research limitations - The potential of high-speed rail was investigated mainly on busy routes with high service frequencies. A comprehensive network comparison between high-speed trains and airplanes was not done and could lead to somewhat different results. --- Practical implications - The report tries to contribute arguments to the discussion about alternatives to air travel. --- Social implications - With more knowledge people can make an educated choice between transport options, can vote with their feet, and can take a firm position in the public discussion. --- Originality/value - A general comparison of HSR and air transport from physical fundamentals to economics seemed to be missing.

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    Authors: Rodrigo, Clinton;

    Purpose - This thesis presents a comparison of aircraft design concepts to identify the superior propulsion system model among turbo-hydraulic, turbo-electric and classic jet propulsion with respect to Direct Operating Costs (DOC), environmental impact and fuel burn. --- Approach - A simple aircraft model was designed based on the Top-Level Aircraft Requirements of the Airbus A320 passenger aircraft, and novel engine concepts were integrated to establish new models. Numerous types of propulsion system configurations were created by varying the type of gas turbine engine and number of propulsors. --- Findings - After an elaborate comparison of the aforementioned concepts, the all turbo-hydraulic propulsion system is found to be superior to the all turbo-electric propulsion system. A new propulsion system concept was developed by combining the thrust of a turbofan engine and utilizing the power produced by the turbo-hydraulic propulsion system that is delivered via propellers. The new partial turbo-hydraulic propulsion concept in which 20% of the total cruise power is coming from the (hydraulic driven) propellers is even more efficient than an all turbo-hydraulic concept in terms of DOC, environmental impact and fuel burn. --- Research Limitations - The aircraft were modelled with a spreadsheet based on handbook methods and relevant statistics. The investigation was done only for one type of reference aircraft and one route. A detailed analysis with a greater number of reference aircraft and types of routes could lead to other results. --- Practical Implications - With the provided spreadsheet, the DOC and environmental impact can be approximated for any commercial reference aircraft combined with the aforementioned propulsion system concepts. --- Social Implications - Based on the results of this thesis, the public will be able to discuss the demerits of otherwise highly lauded electric propulsion concepts. --- Value - To evaluate the viability of the hydraulic propulsion systems for passenger aircraft using simple mass models and aircraft design concept.

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  • image/svg+xml art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos Open Access logo, converted into svg, designed by PLoS. This version with transparent background. http://commons.wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Open_Access_logo_PLoS_white.svg art designer at PLoS, modified by Wikipedia users Nina, Beao, JakobVoss, and AnonMoos http://www.plos.org/
    Authors: Budziak, Kinga;

    This project evaluates the suitability and practicality of the program Athena Vortex Lattice (AVL) by Mark Drela. A short user guide was written to make it easier (especially for students) to get started with the program AVL. AVL was applied to calculate the induced drag and the Oswald factor. In a first task, AVL was used to calculate simple wings of different aspect ratio A and taper ratio lambda. The Oswald factor was calculated as a function f(lambda) in the same way as shown by HOERNER. Compared to HOERNER's function, the error never exceed 7.5%. Surprisingly, the function f(lambda) was not independent of aspect ratio, as could be assumed from HOERNER. Variations of f(lambda) with aspect ratio were studied and general results found. In a second task, the box wing was investigated. Box wings of different h/b ratio: 0.31, 0.62, and 0.93 were calculated in AVL. The induced drag and Oswald factor in all these cases was calculated. An equation, generally used in the literature, describes the box wing's Oswald factor with parameters k1, k2, k3 and k4. These parameters were found from results obtained with AVL by means of the Excel Solver. In this way the curve k = f(h/b) was plotted. The curve was compared with curves with various theories and experiments conducted prior by other students. The curve built based on AVL fits very well with the curve from HOERNER, PRANDTL and a second experiment made in the wind tunnel at HAW Hamburg.

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